Anal cancer is an uncommon type of cancer. It results when cells in the anus grow abnormally and out of control. The anus is the opening at the end of the rectum through which waste products pass when you have a bowel movement. Treatment for anal cancer may include radiation, chemotherapy, surgery or a combination of treatments. Anal cancer that is diagnosed and treated early is associated with the best outcomes.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool or feces. The large intestine moves the stool through the large intestine into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your large intestine which stores stool. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

Anal cancer occurs when the cells in the anus grow abnormally and out of control instead of dividing and replicating in an orderly manner. There are several different types of anal cancer cells. People that have the human papillomavirus (HPV), the sexually transmitted disease that causes genital warts, may have a higher risk if they have a version of the virus called HPV-16. People that have many sex partners, participate in anal sex, smoke, and have HIV, AIDS, or are immune compromised have a higher risk of developing anal cancer.

Anal cancer is fairly rare in the United States. It most frequently affects people at an average age of about 60 years old. Anal cancer is more common in women than men. Most people that are diagnosed and treated with anal cancer early may be cured. However, anal cancer is a serious condition and can cause death.

In some cases, anal cancer does not cause symptoms at all. In the majority of cases with symptoms, bleeding is one of the first signs. Anal cancer may also cause pain and lumps in the anal area. Your anal area may itch. You may have abnormal anal discharge. The diameter of your stools may change size. The lymph nodes in your anal and groin areas may be swollen.

You should contact your doctor if you experience the symptoms of anal cancer. There are several other conditions with similar symptoms, and it is important to see your doctor to receive a diagnosis. Anal cancer that is detected and treated early is associated with the best outcomes. The American Cancer Society suggests that women receive a rectal examination as part of their annual exams, and that men receive an annual rectal exam after the age of 50. People at high risk for anal cancer may be tested at a younger age or more frequently.

Your doctor will review your medical history. It is important to tell your doctor about your risk factors and symptoms. Your doctor will conduct a rectal examination to detect abnormal masses or growths. Your doctor may use other evaluations to help diagnose your condition.

An endoscopy may be used to view the tissues inside of your anus. An anoscopy or a rigid proctosigmoidoscopy are types of endoscopies that may be used. An anoscopy involves placing an anoscope, a short thin tube with a light and viewing instrument, into the anus to allow your doctor to look for abnormalities. A rigid proctosigmoidoscopy is similar to an anoscope, but it is longer and allows your doctor to view more of the colon.

A biopsy may be obtained to test suspicious growths for cancer cells. There are several types of biopsy methods. Your doctor may use a fine needle aspiration to obtain cells or fluid through a fine needle. Your doctor may perform a sentinel lymph node biopsy if he or she suspects that your cancer has spread. A new method of sentinel lymph node biopsy uses an injection of a radioactive blue dye that highlights cancerous areas. A doctor will remove the blue stained areas and have biopsies performed on the cells.

Imaging tests may be used to show how far cancer has spread. Imaging tests may include ultrasound, computed tomography (CT) scans, chest X-rays, positron emission tomography (PET) scans, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. These tests simply require that you remain motionless while the images are taken.

If you have anal cancer, your doctor will assign your cancer a classification stage based on the results of all of your tests. Staging describes the cancer and how it has metastasized. Staging is helpful for treatment planning and recovery prediction.

There is more than one type of staging system for cancer, and you should make sure that you and your doctor are referring to the same one. Generally, lower numbers in a classification system indicate a less serious cancer, and higher numbers indicate a more serious cancer. The stages may be subdivided into grades or classifications that use letters and numbers.

The type of treatment that you receive for anal cancer may depend on several factors including the stage and type of the cancer that you have. The goals of treatment may be to cure the cancer, prevent the cancer from spreading, prevent the cancer from returning, and to relieve symptoms. Anal cancer may be treated with radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and surgery, or a combination of therapy types. It is common to receive at least two types of treatment.

Radiation therapy uses high-energy rays to destroy cancer cells and shrink tumors. It may be used before a surgery to shrink a tumor to make it easier to be removed. External radiation or internal radiation therapy may be used to treat anal cancer. External radiation delivers radiation from an external source, a machine. External radiation typically uses treatments 5 days per week for about 6 weeks. Internal radiation therapy, brachytherapy, involves implanting radioactive seed pellets in or near the cancer. The seeds deliver a slow dose of radiation. You may receive external radiation, internal radiation, or both.

Chemotherapy uses cancer fighting drugs or combinations of drugs to kill cancer cells. You may receive chemotherapy in the form of pills or they may be injected through a needle. Chemotherapy may be used in combination with radiation therapy or after surgery to destroy any remaining cancer cells.

There are several types of surgery for anal cancer. The type of surgery that you have may depend on several factors, including your general health, the size of your tumor, and the location of the tumor. A local resection is a procedure that is used to remove the cancer and the tissue around it. A local resection usually leaves the anus sphincter intact, and following surgery you will be able to have bowel movements.

An abdominoperineal resection (APR) may be used for cancer that has spread. This surgery involves removing the anus and part of the rectum. You will need a colostomy. A colostomy, a bag worn on the outside of the body to collect waste products, is necessary because you will not be able to have bowel movements following an APR. This surgery is not very common today because most people can be treated with a combination of radiation and chemotherapy.

Even with treatment, some cases of anal cancer may return. This is termed “recurrent anal cancer.” Your doctor can explain your risk for anal cancer and possible treatments if it does recur.

The experience of anal cancer and cancer treatments can be an emotional process for people with cancer and their loved ones. It is important that you receive support from a positive source. Some people find comfort in their family, friends, counselors, co-workers, and faith. Cancer support groups are another good option. They can be a source of information and support from people who understand what you are experiencing. Ask your doctor for cancer support group locations in your area.

The American Cancer Society recommends anal cancer screening as part of a woman’s annual examination. Men should be screened for anal cancer every year when they reach the age of 50.

Lifestyle changes may help to prevent anal cancer. It can be helpful to quit smoking. If you have difficulty doing this yourself, ask your doctor for recommendations and resources that may help you.

If you do not have HPV, abstinence, not having sexual contact with another person, is the leading way to prevent HPV. Couples considering sexual relations should be tested for sexually transmitted diseases before beginning sexual contact. It is helpful to stay in a monogamous relationship with a person that you know has been tested and is HPV negative. A monogamous relationship means that you and your partner only have sexual contact with each other. If your partner has HPV, you may reduce the risk of transmission with condoms, but this is not a guarantee. You may prevent the spread of HPV and reduce your risk of anal cancer by not participating in anal sex.

Risk factors may increase your likelihood of developing anal cancer, although some people that develop anal cancer do not have any risk factors. People with all of the risk factors may never develop the disease; however, the chance of developing anal cancer increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Risk factors for anal cancer:

• People that have the HPV-16 subtype of the human papilloma virus (HPV), the sexually transmitted disease that causes genital warts, have an increased risk of developing anal cancer.
• Smoking increases the risk of anal cancer.
• People with multiple sex partners and those that participate in anal sex have an increased risk for anal cancer.
• People with HIV, AIDS, or a compromised immune system are at increased risk for anal cancer.

Anal cancer may spread to the lymph nodes or recur after treatment. Although most cases of anal cancer that are detected and treated early are curable, anal cancer is a serious condition that can result in death.

Your appendix is a small tube-like structure that extends off your large intestine. While the appendix does not have a known function, if it becomes inflamed or infected the result is appendicitis. Appendicitis can be quite dangerous as there is no way to medically treat it. If it occurs, it is considered an emergency and requires surgery to remove. Severe sharp pain in the right lower abdomen is the main symptom of appendicitis. Prompt surgery is necessary to remove the appendix to avoid complications. If there is a delay in treatment, the appendix can burst and cause life threatening complications. Anyone can get appendicitis, but it most often occurs between 10 and 30.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The large intestine is divided into sections. The appendix is located near the beginning of the large intestine in a section called the cecum. The appendix is a finger-shaped pouch. It does not serve any known purpose.

Appendicitis results when the appendix becomes infected, inflamed, or blocked. A piece of stool or ingested material can block the appendix. In some cases of appendicitis, the cause is not known. Appendicitis is an emergency medical condition and needs immediate treatment. An inflamed appendix may rupture. A ruptured appendix can lead to a fatal infection or abscess if it is not treated immediately.

Pain that gradually gets worse is a main symptom of appendicitis. The pain usually starts at the belly button and then shifts to the lower right. Appendicitis related pain typically intensifies over 6 to 12 hours and can become very severe and sharp. The pain may increase when you gently press and release on the area. You may experience a fever, chills, nausea, diarrhea, constipation, and vomiting. You may not feel like eating.

If your appendix ruptures, you may actually feel better for a short time. However, a ruptured appendix may lead to an infection called peritonitis. The infection will make you feel very sick and your pain will feel worse. Your abdomen may swell and feel hard. You may not be able to pass gas. You may feel thirsty and may only pass small amounts of urine. Peritonitis is a medical emergency, and you should go to the emergency department of a hospital immediately if you experience symptoms.

You should be evaluated and treated by a doctor immediately if you suspect that you have appendicitis. Appendicitis is an emergency medical condition. Your doctor will conduct a physical examination and may order some tests. Your doctor will examine your lower abdomen. Your doctor may check a sample of your blood or urine for signs of infection to rule out other conditions with similar symptoms, such as kidney stones.

Imaging tests may be used to help confirm the diagnosis of appendicitis and rule out other conditions. An abdominal X-ray, ultrasound, or computed tomography (CT) scan are commonly used. A CT scan is used to check for an abscess from a ruptured appendix.

Some mild forms of appendicitis may be treated with antibiotics, but for most people, appendicitis is treated with surgery to remove the appendix. You may receive traditional open surgery or laparoscopic surgery. Open surgery uses a larger incision and usually requires a longer recovery time than laparoscopic surgery.

Some mild forms of appendicitis may be treated with antibiotics, but for most people, appendicitis is treated with surgery to remove the appendix. You may receive traditional open surgery or laparoscopic surgery. Open surgery uses a larger incision and usually requires a longer recovery time than laparoscopic surgery.

Recovery time is faster for people that have their appendix removed before it ruptured. A longer recovery time is associated with infections, abscesses, and ruptured appendices. In some cases, doctors may treat an infection before removing the appendix.

You may prevent complications by contacting your doctor immediately if you experience the symptoms of appendicitis.

Appendicitis can happen to anyone. It occurs most frequently between the ages of 10 and 30. A ruptured appendix is more common in children.

In rare cases, a ruptured appendix can cause death. A ruptured appendix can lead to infection and needs to be treated immediately in the emergency department of a hospital.

Bile duct cancer, also called cholangiocarcinoma, is a rare form of cancer that occurs in the duct that carries bile from the liver to the small intestine. Bile duct cancer is relatively slow growing. Its main symptom is jaundice (yellowing of skin and eyes). Surgery is the treatment of choice for bile duct cancer. Radiation and chemotherapy is commonly used before surgery to reduce the size of a tumor or as a follow-up treatment after surgery.

The bile duct begins as many small channels in your liver that meet to form the hepatic duct. The hepatic duct is joined by the cystic duct from the gallbladder, and their union forms the common bile duct. The common bile duct continues to the duodenum, the first part of your small intestine.

Your gallbladder works with your liver and pancreas to produce bile and digestive enzymes. Bile is a fluid that breaks down fat in food for digestion. Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder until it is needed. When you eat high-fat or high-cholesterol foods, your gallbladder sends bile to your duodenum via the common bile duct.

Bile duct cancer is a rare form of cancer. Most bile duct cancers are adenocarcinomas. The majority of cases are slow growing and late to metastasize. Cancer that has spread to other parts of the body is termed metastasized. However, by the time most bile duct cancers are diagnosed, they are too advanced for surgical removal.

Researchers do not know the cause of most bile duct cancers. Cancer occurs when cells grow abnormally and out of control, instead of dividing in an orderly manner. Most bile duct cancer arises from the mucus glands that line the duct. It appears that chronic irritation of the bile duct, by inflammation or parasitic infection, is the top risk factor associated with bile duct cancer formation.

Cancer can develop in any part of the bile duct. The cancer is classified based on its location. The majority of bile duct cancer develops in the hepatic duct at the site where the small channels in the liver join together. Cancers in this area are called perihilar cancers or Klatskin tumors. Distal bile duct cancers form in the common bile duct near the small intestine. A small percentage of bile duct cancers form in the channels within the liver and are called intrahepatic bile duct cancers.

Symptoms occur when the bile ducts become blocked. Jaundice is the most common symptom of bile duct cancer. Jaundice is a condition caused by an excess of bilirubin. Symptoms of jaundice include yellowing of the eyes and skin, dark urine and pale-colored stools. You may also experience fever, nausea, vomiting, chills, and itching. You may lose your appetite and lose weight. You may feel pain in your right upper abdomen that may spread to your back.

Your doctor can begin to diagnose bile duct cancer through a series of tests, examinations, and by reviewing your medical history. Your doctor will feel your abdomen for masses or enlarged organs. Blood tests will evaluate your liver function and bilirubin. Your blood may be tested for tumor markers, which some people produce in the presence of bile duct cancer.

Imaging tests are used to identify the location and size of tumors and blockages. Common imaging tests include ultrasound, computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), positron emission tomography (PET) scans, cholangiography, and angiography. Ultrasound uses sound waves to produce images of internal organs and detect abnormal tissues. An ultrasound device may be placed over the abdomen area, inserted through the mouth and into the stomach (endoscopic ultrasound), or through an incision in the side of the body (laparoscopic ultrasound).

CT scans take cross-sectional images of the body. They may be used with a contrast agent or dye to take pictures of your bile duct and nearby organs. CT scans are useful for determining if cancer has metastasized. MRI scans produce even more detailed images and can outline the exact site of bile duct blockage.

An ERCP uses an endoscope to view the biliary system. An endoscope is a thin tube with a light and viewing instrument at the end of it. After you are sedated, the thin tube is passed through your mouth and into your small intestine. An endoscope is used to take tissue samples with biliary brushing. It can administer dye to enhance views.

A cholangiography can determine the exact location of bile duct cancer. It is helpful for determining if the cancer can be treated with surgery. For this procedure, contrast dye is injected into the bile duct before X-rays are taken.

Angiography is used to show surgeons the location of blood vessels that are near the bile duct cancer for surgical planning. Angiography involves inserting a small tube into a blood vessel to inject contrast dye near the suspected site before X-rays are taken.

A PET scan is an imaging test that uses a radioactive sugar substance. A PET scan determines how quickly the cells metabolize the sugar. Cancer cells and normal cells metabolize sugar at different rates.

A laparoscopy is a procedure used to view the bile duct, gallbladder, liver, and other internal organs. It uses a thin-lighted instrument, a laparoscope, which is inserted through an incision in the abdomen. A laparoscope can take a biopsy. A biopsy is a tissue sample that is taken for evaluation of cancer cells. A CT scan is used to guide needle biopsies.

If you have bile duct cancer, your doctor will assign your cancer a classification stage based on the results of all of your tests. Staging describes the cancer and how it has metastasized. Staging is helpful for treatment planning and recovery prediction.

Surgery is the treatment of choice to remove bile duct cancer. Chemotherapy or radiation may be used if all of the cancer cannot be removed with surgery. The type of treatment that you receive depends on many factors, including the location and stage of your cancer.

Intrahepatic surgery is used for bile duct cancer that originates in the liver. This procedure removes the part of the liver that contains cancer. Surgery for perihilar cancer usually includes removing the bile duct, gallbladder, and part of the pancreas, small intestine, and liver. The remaining bile ducts are connected to the small intestine. Part of the pancreas and small intestine is usually removed during surgical treatment of distal bile duct cancer. A Whipple procedure removes the bile ducts, part of the stomach, duodenum, pancreas, gallbladder, and lymph nodes. In select cases, a complete liver transplantation may be necessary to treat bile duct cancer. If all of the cancer cannot be removed, a bypass surgery is used to relieve symptoms of bile duct obstruction. Bypass surgery creates a new route from the bile duct to the small intestine.

Chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or both may be used to reduce the size of a tumor before surgery or as a follow-up treatment after surgery. Radiation therapy uses high-energy rays to eliminate cancer cells. Chemotherapy uses cancer-fighting drugs to destroy cancer cells. There are different types of chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

Even with treatment, some cases of bile duct cancer may return. This is termed “recurrent bile duct cancer.” The cancer may come back near the site of the original cancer or in other parts of the body. Your doctor can explain your risk for recurrent bile duct cancer and possible treatments if it does recur.

The experience of bile duct cancer and cancer treatments can be an emotional process for people with cancer and their loved ones. It is important that you receive support from a positive source. Some people find comfort in their family, friends, counselors, co-workers, and faith. Cancer support groups are another good option. They can be a source of information and support from people who understand what you are experiencing. Ask your doctor for cancer support group locations in your area.

You may prevent bile duct cancer by reducing the risk factors that you can control. It may be helpful to avoid the hazardous chemicals associated with bile duct cancer. You can prevent hepatitis B with a vaccine and hepatitis C by avoiding blood-borne or sexually transmitted infections. Stopping alcohol abuse may prevent liver cirrhosis. When travelling in Asia, it is important to avoid contact with liver flukes.

Risk factors may increase your likelihood of developing bile duct cancer, although some people that experience this cancer may not have any risk factors. People with all of the risk factors may never develop bile duct cancer; however, the likelihood increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Risk factors for bile duct cancer:

• Long-term inflammation of the bile duct is associated with an increased risk of developing bile cancer.
• Sclerosing cholangitis is a type of bile duct inflammation that leads to scar tissue formation and is associated with an increased risk of bile duct cancer.
• Ulcerative colitis is an inflammation of the large intestine that can lead to sclerosing cholangitis.
• Smoking increases the risk of bile duct cancer for people with sclerosing cholangitis.
• Stones in the bile duct increase the risk for developing bile duct cancer.
• Diseases of the liver and bile duct increase the risk for bile duct cancer. Such conditions include polycystic liver disease, choledochal cysts, congenital dilation of the intrahepatic bile ducts, and cirrhosis.
• In Asian countries, parasites called liver flukes are a major cause of bile duct cancer.
• Aging increases the risk for bile duct cancer. Bile duct cancer occurs most frequently in people over the age of 65.
• Radioactive chemicals, including Thorotrast (thorium dioxide) which was used years ago during X-rays, are associated with an increased risk for bile duct cancer development.
• Certain chemicals may be associated with bile duct cancer formation. These chemicals include dioxin, nitrosamines, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
• Viral hepatitis B or C is linked to intrahepatic bile duct cancer. The link is greater for hepatitis C.
• An association with both diabetes and HIV have been suggested but not proven.

Scientists are studying the genetic changes associated with bile duct cancer. They hope to use such information to better prevent, diagnose, and treat the disease. Researchers are studying immunotherapy to boost the immune system’s response to fight cancer. Photodynamic therapy is being investigated as a treatment method that uses medication and special light rays to cause cancer cells to die.

Celiac Sprue is an inherited disease that affects the way nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine. It occurs when people with the genetic condition eat foods that contain gluten and other proteins. Gluten is contained in wheat, barley, rye, and some oat products. The gluten causes an autoimmune reaction that damages the inner lining of the small intestine and impedes its role with nutrient absorption. Because of this, celiac sprue is termed a malabsorption condition.

Symptoms of celiac sprue vary from person to person. Symptoms may include abdominal pain and changes in bowel habits. Numerous non-gastrointestinal symptoms may occur as well including joint pain, bone fractures, and complications from nutritional deficiencies. The treatment for celiac sprue is to not consume gluten products. If celiac sprue is not treated, it can lead to serious medical complications including an increased risk for developing cancer.

Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach.

Your stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. Your stomach processes the food you eat into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine.

The small intestine is a tube that is about 20-22 feet long and 1 ½ to 2 inches around. The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. It is a short C-shaped structure that extends off of the stomach. The jejunum and the ileum are the middle and final sections of the small intestine.

Your small intestine breaks down the liquid from your stomach even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients. Your small intestine is lined with villi. Villi are tiny projections that absorb nutrients. Their finger-like shape increases the surface area of absorption in the small intestine. The villi are more dense in the first part of the small intestine and are sparse or absent in the last section of the small intestine.

The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine. The liquid solidifies as it moves through the large intestine, forming a stool. The stool is eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

Celiac Sprue is a chronic autoimmune disease of the digestive tract. People with celiac sprue have an inherited genetic disorder. The condition results when people with the genetic condition eat foods that contain gluten and other proteins. Gluten is contained in wheat, barley, rye, and some oat products. The gluten causes an autoimmune reaction that damages the inner lining of the small intestine. When the intestinal lining is damaged, it is unable to produce the enzymes necessary for digestion and nutrient absorption. Further, the villi in the small intestine become flattened which further impedes the absorption process. Because of this, celiac sprue is termed a malabsorption disorder. The function of other body organs may be affected when malabsorption occurs.

Symptoms of celiac sprue can vary from person to person. Symptoms may be gastrointestinal or non-gastrointestinal. You may experience diarrhea, constipation, vomiting, gas, and bloating. You may have pain in your abdomen and feel nauseated. Your stools may be “fatty,” float, contain blood, or have a foul smell. You may lose your appetite and lose weight.

Non-gastrointestinal symptoms include muscle cramps, joint pain, bone pain, and bone conditions such as osteoporosis and fractures. You may experience skin disorders, hair loss, and bruise easily. Your teeth may become discolored and develop enamel problems. Sores may appear in your mouth. You may feel depressed, irritable, and tired. It may be difficult for you to breathe, or you may feel fatigued, if you develop anemia, a shortage of red blood cells. Malnutrition and vitamin deficiencies can occur, particularly of iron, folate, and vitamin K. Women may experience hormonal changes, infertility, and miscarriage. Men may experience hormonal changes, infertility, and impotence. Additionally, you may experience low blood sugar levels, nosebleeds, seizures, and general or abdominal swelling.

Symptoms in children develop when they begin to eat cereal. Childhood symptoms include abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, depression, irritability, and behavior problems. Because celiac sprue interferes with nutrient absorption, children may have impaired growth and be short.

Your doctor can start to diagnose celiac sprue by reviewing your medical history and conducting a physical examination. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms, what you typically eat, and your risk factors for celiac sprue. Your doctor will test your blood for the antibodies associated with celiac sprue. Your doctor will also test your blood and stool for signs of malabsorption and related complications. If your antibody tests indicate that you have celiac sprue, your doctor may take a biopsy of your small intestine.

A biopsy involves the removal of a very small piece of your small intestine for examination with an Upper Gastrointestinal Intestinal (GI) Endoscopy. This test is also called an Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD). An Upper GI Endoscopy uses an endoscope to view the esophagus, stomach, and upper duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. An endoscope is a long thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to monitor. After you receive relaxing medication, the endoscope is inserted through your mouth. The endoscope allows a doctor to examine the inside of the upper gastrointestinal tract for bleeding, tumors, polyps, and other abnormal conditions. For celiac sprue, the doctor will look at the villi for structural and functional changes. The condition of the villi may show mild, moderate, or severe damage. A tissue sample or biopsy can be taken with the endoscope for examination.

Treatment for celiac sprue, is to remove gluten products from your diet. You will need to follow a gluten-free diet for the rest of your life. Your doctor may refer you to a dietician that can educate you about reading product labels and menu planning. Your doctor may prescribe vitamins and mineral supplements to help correct nutritional imbalances. A small percentage of people with celiac sprue may fail to respond to a gluten-free diet. These people are typically treated with corticosteroid medications.

Symptoms of celiac sprue improve quickly, in just a few days, for most people who follow a gluten-free diet. It usually takes three to six months for the small intestine to heal. In older adults, it may take up to two years to heal.

It is helpful to become educated about gluten-free eating. Learn how to read product labels to detect gluten. A registered dietician can help you identify products and substitutes for your recipes.

Researchers believe that celiac sprue is greatly under diagnosed. Previously believed to be rare, it appears that it may actually be a common condition. Celiac sprue is more common in Western Europe, North America, and Australia. Celiac sprue occurs most frequently in Caucasians and people of Northern European ancestry. It is more common in women than men and generally begins in people between the ages of 30 and 50 years old. Celiac sprue can develop in children when they begin to eat cereal. Lactose intolerance appears to be common in people with celiac sprue. Because it is inherited genetically, your risk of developing celiac sprue is greater if other members of your family have the condition.

If untreated, celiac sprue can lead to life-threatening medical complications including an increased risk for cancer. If you do not follow a strict gluten-free diet, you have an increased risk for developing associated medical conditions including infertility, miscarriage, and bone fractures.

Improvements in anti-body testing have lead to an increased diagnosis of celiac sprue. Further, gluten-free product labeling and gluten-free baking products are becoming more common on grocery store shelves.

Colon and rectal polyps are small growths that project out from the inside lining of the large intestine or rectum. They usually are noncancerous and produce no symptoms. However, some polyps can turn into cancer. Polyps that turn into cancer typically take several years to do so. Screening for colon cancer allows polyps to be detected and removed early, which may prevent the development of cancer.

Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. As water from the waste product is absorbed, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool or feces. It is eventually eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

After you swallow food, it moves through your esophagus and into your stomach. Chemicals in your stomach break down the food into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. Your small intestine breaks down the liquid even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients from the food you ate. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel or colon, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The lower GI tract is divided into sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus. The appendix is located on the cecum, but it does not serve a purpose in the digestive process.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The large intestine moves the stool into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your digestive tract. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

A polyp is a small growth that projects out from the inner mucus lining of the colon or rectum. Most polyps are noncancerous. Polyps that turn into cancer typically take several years to do so. A hyperplastic polyp is generally noncancerous but can be of concern if it grows large. An adenoma is a type of polyp that can turn into cancer. Cancer of the cells that line the inside of the colon is called adenocarcinoma. Adenocarcinomas are the most common type of colon cancer.

The exact cause of colon cancer is unknown. Cancer occurs when cells in the interior lining of the colon grow abnormally and out of control, instead of dividing in an orderly manner. Some people may inherit a genetic variation cannot control the division of cells in the colon and promotes the growth of polyps and cancer. Polyps that may be associated with certain hereditary disorders include Gardner’s Syndrome, Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome, Juvenille Polyposis, Familial Adenomatous Polyposis, and Lynch Syndrome.

Most people with colorectal polyps or early colorectal cancer do not have symptoms. Symptoms may include changes in bowel movement patterns. You may develop diarrhea, constipation, or narrow stools that last for more than a few days. You may experience rectal bleeding or have blood in your stools. However, it is also common for the stools to remain normal looking. Lower abdominal pain or cramps are rare but may occur. Weight loss may occur for no apparent reason. You may feel weak or tired. Additionally, some people develop anemia, a condition characterized by a decrease in red blood cells.

Your doctor can diagnose colon polyps after reviewing your medical history and by conducting a physical examination. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms and risk factors. Your doctor will rule out other conditions with similar symptoms, such as hemorrhoids or infection. There are several tests for colorectal polyps.

Your doctor will examine your abdomen to feel for growths or enlarged organs. Your doctor may also perform a digital rectal examination. To do so, your doctor will briefly insert a gloved, lubricated finger into your rectum to check for a growth or mass. A mass may be indicative of rectal cancer, but not colon cancer.

A stool blood test can detect small amounts of blood in your stool. The fecal occult blood test (FOBT) or the fecal immunochemical test (FIT) is commonly used. You will receive a kit and instructions for taking a stool sample at home. The kit is sent to a laboratory for testing. If the test results are positive, your doctor may order a colonoscopy to identify the exact cause of bleeding.

A flexible sigmoidoscopy is used to view the rectum and part of the colon for cancer or polyps. A sigmoidscope is a thin tube with a light and viewing instrument. It is about two feet long. The sigmoidscope is placed in the colon, through the anus. This test can be uncomfortable, but should not be painful. Any abnormal results are followed up with a colonoscopy.

A colonoscopy is used to view the entire colon. A colonoscopy is similar to a sigmoidoscopy, but it is much longer. A colonoscopy allows a doctor to examine the colon for cancer or polyps. A tissue sample or biopsy can be taken with the colonoscopy. A colonoscopy can be uncomfortable, and you will receive medication to relax you prior to and during the test.

A virtual colonoscopy is a newer way to view the colon with a computed tomography (CT) scan. A CT scan takes a series of images to compose a detailed picture. A virtual colonoscopy involves filling the colon with air and then taking the CT scans. The CT images construct a visual depiction of the interior of the colon. The colon can also be viewed with a barium enema with air contrast test. For this test, the barium, a chalky substance, and air are used to fill and expand the colon. Next, X-rays are taken. These tests can be uncomfortable. Any abnormal results are followed up with a colonoscopy.

Tissue from polyps can be sampled or even removed and then examined to see if they are cancerous. Most polyps are removed during a colonoscopy. In rare cases, a section of the colon may be surgically removed if the polyps are cancerous. Early detected cancer has excellent cure rates. People found to have polyps are then examined on a regular basis, usually every three to five years.

In most cases, colon cancer is treatable if it is detected early. The American Cancer Society recommends that people be screened for colon cancer beginning at age 50. Screening may be warranted earlier for people with a history of polyps or inflammatory bowel disease and a personal or family history of certain cancers. Screening may include fecal occult blood testing, flexible sigmoidoscopy, colonoscopy, and barium enema testing.

Some studies suggest that lifestyle changes may be helpful as well in the prevention of colon and rectal cancer. This includes not smoking and maintaining a healthy weight. These studies are not conclusive, but they suggest that eating fruits and vegetables that are high in fiber and reducing high-fat foods may reduce the risk of colorectal cancer. Other studies suggest that vitamins or a diet containing folic acid or folate, vitamin D, magnesium, and calcium may help lower colorectal cancer risk. Exercising for 30 minutes for five or more days during the week is also recommended.

Aspirin and similar medications may help reduce polyp formation in some people. However, not everyone can tolerate the side effects of aspirin. You should talk to your doctor before taking aspirin to see if it is right for you.

Certain risk factors may increase your likelihood of developing colorectal polyps. People with all of the risk factors may never develop polyps; however, the chance of developing the condition increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Risk factors for colorectal polyps:

• People over the age of 50 are more likely to develop colorectal polyps.
• If you had colorectal polyps or cancer before, even if it was removed, you are at risk for developing colorectal polyps or cancer again.
• Ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s Disease increase the risk for colon polyps.
• If you have family members that have colorectal polyps or cancer, especially before the age of 60, you are at a higher risk.
• Certain genetic syndromes in some families cause the development of hundreds of polyps in the colon. The high number of polyps increases the risk of developing cancer.
• What you eat may increase your risk for colon cancer, although the cause of the link is not clear. Diets that are low in fiber, high in fat and animal products, such as meat, appear to increase the risk of colorectal polyps and cancer.
• People who are overweight have an increased risk of developing polyps and a higher rate of dying from colorectal cancer.
• People who smoke are more likely than non-smokers to develop polyps and die of colorectal cancer.

The majority of colon cancers begin as a benign or non-cancerous polyp. Polyps that turn into cancer typically take several years to do so. Screening for colon cancer allows polyps to be detected and removed early, which may prevent the development of cancer.

Colon cancer is a common type of cancer. Colon cancer occurs when cells in the interior lining of the colon or large intestine grow abnormally and out of control. The exact cause of colon cancer is unknown.

In most cases, colon cancers begin as a benign or non-cancerous polyp. A polyp is a small growth that projects out from the inside lining of the colon. Not all polyps turn into cancer. Polyps that turn into cancer typically take several years to do so. Screening for colon cancer allows polyps to be detected and removed early, which may prevent the development of cancer.

Your colon is located at the end part of your digestive system. Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system.

When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach. Muscles in your esophagus wall slowly squeeze the food toward your stomach.

Chemicals in your stomach begin to break down the food. Your stomach processes the food you eat into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. The small intestine is a tube that is about 20-22 feet long and 1 ½ to 2 inches around. Your small intestine breaks down the liquid even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients from the food you ate. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The large intestine is divided into sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus. The appendix is located on the cecum, but it does not serve a purpose in the digestive process.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms stool or feces. The large intestine moves the stool into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your large intestine. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

The exact cause of colon cancer is unknown. Cancer occurs when cells in the interior lining of the colon grow abnormally and out of control, instead of dividing in an orderly manner. Because the colon and rectum are both part of the large intestine, cancers are sometimes referred to together as “colorectal cancer,” although their treatments may differ.

In rare cases, colon cancer can develop as a result of genetic mutations. However, the majority of colon cancers begin as a benign or non-cancerous polyp. A polyp is a small growth that projects out from the inside mucus lining of the colon. A type of polyp called an adenoma can turn into cancer. Cancer in the cells that line the inside of the colon are called adenocarcinomas. Adenocarcinomas are the most common type of colon cancer. However, not all polyps turn into cancer. Polyps that turn into cancer typically take several years to do so.

Most people with early colon cancer do not have symptoms. Symptoms tend to appear as colon cancer advances. Some people do not develop any symptoms. Symptoms may include changes in bowel movement patterns. You may develop diarrhea, constipation, or narrow stools that last for more than a few days. You may experience rectal bleeding or have blood in your stools. However, it is also common for the stools to remain normal looking. You may have the feeling that you need to have a bowel movement even after you have just completed one.

You may also experience lower abdominal pain or cramps. You may feel weak or tired. Some people develop anemia, a decrease in red blood cells.

Your doctor can diagnose colon cancer after reviewing your medical history and by conducting a physical examination. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms and risk factors. Your doctor will rule out other conditions with similar symptoms, such as hemorrhoids or infection. There are several tests for colorectal cancer.

Your doctor will examine your abdomen to feel for growths or enlarged organs. Your doctor may also perform a digital rectal examination. A mass may be indicative of rectal cancer, but not colon cancer.

A stool blood test can detect small amounts of blood in your stool. The fecal occult blood test (FOBT) or the fecal immunochemical test (FIT) is commonly used. You will receive a kit and instructions for taking a stool sample at home. The kit is sent to a laboratory for testing. If the test results are positive, your doctor may order a sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy to identify the exact cause of bleeding.

A flexible sigmoidoscopy is used to view the rectum and part of the colon for cancer or polyps. A sigmoidscope is a thin tube with a light and viewing instrument. It is about two feet long. The sigmoidscope is placed in the colon, through the anus. This test can be uncomfortable, but should not be painful.

A colonoscopy is used to view the entire colon. A colonoscopy is similar to a sigmoidscope, but it is much longer. A colonoscopy allows a doctor to examine the colon for cancer or polyps. A tissue sample or biopsy may also be taken with the colonoscopy. A colonoscopy can be uncomfortable however you will receive medication to relax you for the test.

A virtual colonoscopy is a newer way to view the colon with a computed tomography (CT) scan. A CT scan takes a series of images to compose a detailed picture. A virtual colonoscopy involves filling the colon with air and then taking the CT scans. The CT images construct a visual depiction of the interior of the colon. The colon can also be viewed with a barium enema with air contrast test. For this test, the barium, a chalky substance, and air are used to fill and expand the colon. Next, X-rays are taken. These tests can be uncomfortable. Any abnormal results are followed up with a colonoscopy.

Your doctor may order blood tests to see if you have anemia. Anemia is a condition that results from a low red blood cell count. Some people with colorectal cancer develop anemia as a result of bleeding from a tumor.

If your tests are positive for colorectal cancer, your doctor will order tests to determine if the cancer has spread to other parts of your body. In some cases, cancer that originates in the colon can spread or metastasize to other organs. Blood tests can assess your liver function. CT scans and chest X-rays can see if the cancer has spread to the liver, lungs, or other organs.

If you have colon cancer, your doctor will determine what stage of growth your cancer is in and if it has spread or metastasized. Your doctor will assign a number to label your cancer stage. Staging is helpful for treatment planning and recovery prediction. There are different systems for staging colon cancer, and you should make sure that you understand the system that your doctor is using. The stages of colon cancer are most commonly labeled with the Roman numerals I through IV, with a higher number indicating a more serious cancer. The stages of colon cancer, according to the American Cancer Society, are:
Stage 0: The cancer has not grown beyond the inner lining of the colon.
Stage I: The cancer has grown through several inner layers of the colon.
Stage II: The cancer has grown through the wall of the colon and may extend to nearby tissues, but it has not spread to the lymph nodes.
Stage III: The cancer has grown through the colon and to nearby lymph nodes, but it has not spread to other parts of the body.
Stage IV: The cancer has grown through the colon and has metastasized to distant tissues and organs, such as the liver, lungs, peritoneum, or ovaries.

Your doctor may refer you to an Oncologist for treatment. An Oncologist is a doctor with special training in cancer and cancer treatments. Treatment for colon cancer depends on the stage of the cancer.

Surgery is the primary treatment for colon cancer. Surgery removes the cancerous mass from the body. Advanced cancers may need adjuvant therapy or additional treatments. Adjuvant therapies are used if there is a chance that cancer cells may exist outside of the surgical site or if there is a chance that the cancer might come back.

Adjuvant therapies for colon cancer include radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Radiation therapy uses high-energy rays to destroy cancer cells. Chemotherapy uses cancer-fighting drugs to destroy cancer cells. There are several different types of radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Treatments usually last for several weeks or months. Your doctor will let you know what to expect.

Stage 0: colon cancer is treated with the surgical removal of the lesion or polyp. The surgery is frequently done with the colonoscopy. Stage I colon cancer can also be treated with surgery.

Stage I: colon cancer may require the removal of the segment of the colon containing the cancer, after which the colon is reattached. Stage 0 and Stage I colon cancers do not require additional therapy.

Stage II: colon cancer is usually treated with surgical resection of a portion of the colon. In some cases radiation therapy or chemotherapy is recommended if the cancer has a high likelihood of returning.

Stage III: colon cancer is first treated with surgical resection of the colon and then with chemotherapy. In some cases, radiation may also be used.

Treatment of Stage IV colon cancer depends on how extensively the cancer has metastasized. Treatment choices may also depend on the overall health of the individual. The goal of Stage IV colon cancer treatments are to prevent complications, extend life, and to improve the quality of life. Stage IV treatments are usually not curative in nature. Stage IV colon cancer surgery is usually performed to prevent colon complications, such as a blockage. In come cases a stent or tube is inserted through the cancer tumor to prevent or help manage blockages.

Stage IV: colon cancer surgery may involve resection of the colon or a colostomy. A colostomy involves surgically creating an opening in the abdominal wall for the elimination of stools. This diverts the process from the anus. A colostomy may be necessary if the colon is extensively damaged.

Surgery in Stage IV also includes removing cancer metastases from other organs if possible. Metastases may also be treated with nonsurgical methods, such as freezing or heating with microwaves. Chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy may also be given.

In some cases, colon cancer returns after treatment. This is termed “recurrent colon cancer.” Recurrent colon cancer may come back near the original site or in distant organs. It most commonly returns in the liver first. Recurrent colon cancer may be treated with surgery and chemotherapy.

If the colon cancer does not return in five years after treatment, it is considered cured. Stage 0-III colon cancers are potentially curable. In most cases, Stage IV colon cancer is not curable. Your doctor will let you know what to expect.

The experience of cancer and cancer treatments can be an emotional process for people with cancer and their loved ones. It is important that you receive emotional support. Some people find comfort in their family, friends, co-workers, and place of worship. Cancer support groups are another good option. They can be a good source of information and support from people who understand what you are experiencing. Ask your doctor about cancer support group locations in your area.

In most cases, colon cancer is treatable if it is detected early. The American Cancer Society recommends that people be screened for colon cancer beginning at age 50. Screening may be warranted earlier for people with a history of polyps or inflammatory bowel disease, and a personal or family history of certain cancers. Screening may include a fecal occult blood test, flexible sigmoidoscopy, colonoscopy, and barium enema testing.

If you have been diagnosed and treated for colon cancer, you will have regular follow-up appointments to check for recurrence. Some studies suggest that lifestyle changes may be helpful as well. These studies are not conclusive, but they suggest that eating fruits and vegetables that are high in fiber and reducing high-fat foods may reduce the risk of colorectal cancer. Other studies suggest that vitamins or a diet containing folic acid or folate, vitamin D, magnesium, and calcium may help lower colorectal cancer risk. Exercising for 30 minutes for five or more days during the week is also recommended.

Aspirin and similar medications may help reduce polyp formation in some people. However, not everyone can tolerate the side effects of aspirin. You should talk to your doctor before taking aspirin to see if it is right for you.

Risk factors may increase your likelihood of developing colon cancer. People with all of the risk factors may never develop the disease; however, the chance of developing colon cancer increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Risk factors for colon cancer:

• People over the age of 50 are more likely to develop colon cancer.
• If you had colon cancer before, even if it was removed, you are at risk for developing colon cancer again.
• If you have had polyps in your colon or rectum you have an increased risk for cancer in your colon or rectum. Numerous polyps or large polyps are associated with a higher risk.
• Ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s Disease, digestive tract diseases, increase the risk for colon cancer.
• If you have family members that have colon or rectal cancer, especially before the age of 60, you are at a higher risk for colon cancer.
• Certain genetic syndromes in some families cause the development of hundreds of polyps in the colon. The high number of polyps increases the risk of developing cancer.
• People who are Ashkenazi Jews or African American appear to have a higher risk of developing colon cancer than people of other ethnicity or racial backgrounds.
• What you eat may increase your risk for colon cancer, although the cause of the link is not clear. Diets that are low in fiber, high in fat and animal products, such as meat, appear to increase the risk for colon cancer.
• People who do not exercise have a higher risk of developing colorectal cancer.
• People who are overweight have an increased chance of dying from colorectal cancer.
• People who smoke are more likely than non-smokers to die of colorectal cancer.
• Consuming a large amount of alcohol is linked with colorectal cancer.

Researchers suggest that people with diabetes, breast cancer, and testicular cancer may have a higher risk for developing colorectal cancer, although the results of such studies are not conclusive. Researchers also suspect that long-term female night shift workers may also be at risk because of the role of light on body cell development, but more studies are needed.

Metastases are a complication of Stage IV colon cancer. This means that the cancer has grown through the colon and spread to distant tissues and organs. Common sites for colon cancer metastases include the liver, lungs, peritoneum, or ovaries. The cancer must be treated in the distant organs as well as in the colon.

Recurrent colon cancer can be a complication after treatment. Recurrent colon cancer may return near the original site in the colon and in the distant organs, usually the liver first. Recurrent colon cancer is ideally treated with surgery first along with radiation therapy.

The side effects of radiation therapy and chemotherapy can be harsh for some people. The type of side effects you experience may depend on the type of radiation therapy or chemotherapy that you receive. Tell your doctor about the side effects you experience. In some instances, steps can be taken to relieve or reduce the amount of side effects.

The side effects from chemotherapy may include temporary hair loss, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite, mouth sores, rashes, fatigue, low blood counts, hand swelling, and foot swelling. Most side effects subside after treatment. Your hair will grow back, although it may look different.

Potential side effects of radiation therapy include mild skin irritation, nausea, diarrhea, rectal irritation, bladder irritation, loss of bowel control, fatigue, vaginal irritation in women, and impotence in men. Some of the side effects from radiation may be temporary, but others may persist and become permanent.

Researchers are continually working on methods to prevent, detect, and treat colon cancer. Researchers are working on chemoprevention, methods of using diet and medications to lower the risk of getting cancer. Scientists are also studying the genetic changes that take place during cancer. They hope to identify gene therapies that can correct such problems.

In the area of immunotherapy, researchers are studying ways to boost a person’s immune system to fight colon cancer better. Medications are also being studied that can detect fast and slow growing cancer cells. Finally, researchers are looking for new ways to perfect the screening process for colon cancer and to inform the public about such screening methods.

A colonoscopy is a procedure that uses a scope to view the inside lining of the entire colon. A scope is a long thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to a monitor. The scope allows a doctor to examine the inside of your colon for cancer, polyps, and disease. A tissue sample or biopsy can be taken with the scope. A colonoscopy is an outpatient procedure. You will receive medication to relax you prior to the test.

A colonoscopy may be ordered for several reasons. It most frequently is used as a screening tool for colon polyps or colon cancer. A colonoscopy may also be used to identify digestive or inflammatory disease. It is helpful for determining the cause of bleeding, pain, or changes in bowel habits. Additionally, a scope is used for taking photographs, obtaining tissue samples, surgically removing polyps, or specialized laser surgeries.

A colonoscopy is an outpatient procedure that can be performed at a doctor’s office or a hospital. Another person will need to drive you home because you will receive sedation medication for the procedure. Preparation instructions for a colonoscopy generally consist of methods to empty or clean your bowel prior to the test including the use of laxatives, enemas, or a liquid diet. You should not eat or drink on the night before your test. Your doctor will provide you with specific instructions.

You will wear an examination gown for your colonoscopy. The healthcare staff will monitor your blood pressure, heart rate, breathing rate, and temperature during the test. You will receive pain-relieving medication and a sedative through an IV line. The medication will relax you and make you feel drowsy.

A digital rectal examination may be performed before the test. You will lie on your left side with your knees bent for the procedure.

Your doctor will carefully insert the scope into your colon through your anus. Air will be inserted to open the folds of the colon to provide a better view. Your doctor will gently and slowly advance the scope into your colon. You may need to change positions during the procedure to allow your doctor to best place the scope.

The procedure may cause temporary discomfort. It is common to experience gas during and after a colonoscopy. You may feel nauseous, bloated, and drowsy after the procedure. Your doctor will instruct you on how to increase your food and liquid intake. Your doctor will also discuss unexpected symptoms related to the test that may occur and a plan to address them.

Your doctor will review the results of your colonoscopy with you at a follow-up appointment. It may take time for biopsy results to be received. If abnormal results were found during your test, your doctor will discuss treatment options with you.

Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. As water from the waste product is absorbed, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool or feces. It is eventually eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

After you swallow food, it moves through your esophagus and into your stomach. Chemicals in your stomach break down the food into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. Your small intestine breaks down the liquid even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients from the food you ate. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The first part of the large intestine is the colon. The large intestine is divided into sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus. The appendix is located on the cecum, but it does not serve a purpose in the digestive process.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The large intestine moves the stool through the large intestine into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before being traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your large intestine. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

Constipation refers to a change and decrease in bowel movements. Constipation can be very uncomfortable but is rarely linked to a serious medical condition. It can cause hard stools that are difficult and painful to pass. A poor diet, poor bowel habits, physical inactivity, and older age are common factors associated with constipation. Constipation is treated with dietary changes, lifestyle changes, and in some cases, medications.

Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. As water from the waste product is absorbed, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool or feces. It is eventually eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

After you swallow food, it moves through your esophagus and into your stomach. Chemicals in your stomach break down the food into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. Your small intestine breaks down the liquid even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients from the food you ate. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The first part of the large intestine is the colon. The large intestine is divided into sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus. The appendix is located on the cecum, but it does not serve a purpose in the digestive process.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The large intestine moves the stool through the large intestine into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before being traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your large intestine. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

Constipation refers to a change and decrease in bowel movements. Stools become hard because they contain less water than usual. This makes the stools difficult and painful to pass. A poor diet, poor bowel habits, physical inactivity, older age, and certain diseases or medical conditions can cause constipation.

Diets that are high in fats, refined sugar, and low in fiber can cause constipation. Not drinking enough water can contribute to constipation.

Poor bowel habits are associated with constipation. For healthy bowels, you should go to the bathroom when you feel the urge to have a bowel movement. Holding a bowel movement can lead to progressive constipation. This may occur in people who are apprehensive about using public restrooms or in children that are resisting toilet training.

Certain medical conditions including irritable bowel syndrome, intestinal obstruction, pregnancy, thyroid conditions, and neurological disorders can cause constipation. It can occur as a side effect of some medications. It can also occur as a consequence of laxative abuse.

Constipation can be very uncomfortable because of changes in your stools and bowel habits. Your bowel movements may occur more infrequently than usual. It may be difficult to start a bowel movement. Your stools may become hard and take a long time to pass. Passing a stool may be difficult and painful. Constipation can lead to hemorrhoids or rectal prolapse. Rectal prolapse is a condition that occurs when part of the intestinal lining comes out through the rectum.

You should contact your doctor if you experience rectal prolapse, blood in your stool, very thin stools, unexplained weight loss, or severe pain, which may be symptoms of other medical conditions. You should receive immediate emergency medical attention for symptoms of an intestinal blockage including a sudden inability to pass gas or stools, abdominal pain, and vomiting.

Your doctor can diagnose constipation by reviewing your medical history and asking you questions about your bowel movements. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms and risk factors. Your doctor will conduct a physical examination and test your stools and blood. Your thyroid functioning may also be assessed, as hypothyroidism can contribute to constipation.

Your doctor may refer you to a gastroenterologist for special tests. A gastroenterologist is a doctor that specializes in digestive tract conditions. Additional tests may be ordered to help determine the cause of your constipation and to rule out other conditions with similar symptoms, such as an intestinal blockage.

Your doctor will examine your abdomen to feel for growths or enlarged organs. Your doctor may also perform a digital rectal examination.

An X-ray of your abdomen may reveal an intestinal obstruction or other problems. An X-ray simply requires that you remain motionless while a camera takes a picture. In some cases, doctors may order additional imaging tests such as a sigmoidoscopy or a colonoscopy.

A flexible sigmoidoscopy is used to view the rectum and part of the colon. A sigmoid scope is a thin tube with a light and viewing instrument. It is about two feet long. The sigmoid scope is placed in the colon, through the anus. This test can be uncomfortable, but should not be painful.

A colonoscopy is used to view the entire colon. A colon scope is similar to a sigmoidscope, but it is much longer. A tissue sample or biopsy may also be taken with the colon scope. A colonoscopy can be uncomfortable, and you will receive medication to relax you prior to the test.

A virtual colonoscopy is a newer way to view the colon with a computed tomography (CT) scan. A CT scan takes a series of images to compose a detailed picture. A virtual colonoscopy involves filling the colon with air and then taking the CT scans. The CT images construct a visual depiction of the interior of the colon. The colon can also be viewed with a barium enema with air contrast test. For this test, the barium, a chalky substance, and air are used to fill and expand the colon. Next, X-rays are taken. These tests can be uncomfortable. Any abnormal results are followed up with a colonoscopy.

Your doctor will first treat any underlying medical condition that is contributing to your constipation. A dietary component is always a part of the treatment plan. Recommendations usually include eating more foods that are high in fiber and drinking plenty of water and fruit juices. It is also important that you get plenty of exercise, including increased activity for older adults and regular exercise for younger people. Additionally, you should go to the bathroom as soon as you feel the need to have a bowel movement.

Initially, doctors may recommend some medications. Your doctor may prescribe bulk-forming agents, stool softeners, or laxatives. You should discuss long-term medication options with your doctor, if necessary. Over-the-counter laxatives are not recommended for long-term use.

There are several steps you can take to prevent constipation. Eat a diet that is high in fiber including fresh fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. Drink plenty of water and fruit juices. Exercise regularly or increase your activity level. Establish healthy bowel habits. Go to the bathroom when you feel the need to void.

Certain factors can lead to constipation. They include eating a poor diet, physical inactivity, older age, certain medical conditions, and some medications. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns. There may be changes you can make to eliminate selected risk factors.

You should receive immediate emergency medical attention for symptoms of an intestinal blockage including a sudden inability to pass gas or stools, abdominal pain, and vomiting.

You should contact your doctor if you experience blood in your stool, very thin stools, unexplained weight loss, or severe pain, which may be symptoms of other medical conditions. Constipation can lead to hemorrhoids or rectal prolapse. Rectal prolapse is a condition that occurs when part of the intestinal lining comes out through the rectum.

Diarrhea is a very common condition for people of all ages. A viral infection, such as the stomach flu, or a bacterial infection most frequently causes diarrhea. Less commonly, diarrhea is associated with an underlying medical condition. Symptoms include the passing of frequent stools that are loose, watery, and soft. Diarrhea may also cause bloating, pain, cramps, and gas.

Most cases of diarrhea are treated at home and resolve in a few days. Maintaining hydration is the goal of home care. Severe diarrhea can be associated with serious medical complications and require hospitalization

Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach.

Your stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. Your stomach processes the food you eat into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. The liquid solidifies as it moves through the large intestine, forming a stool. The stool is eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

Diarrhea is a very common condition for people of all ages. Diarrhea is the passing of frequent stools that are loose, watery, and soft. It may be associated with bloating, pain, cramps, and gas.

Diarrhea is most frequently caused by a viral infection, such as the stomach flu. There are many viruses that cause the stomach flu. Rotavirus and Norwalk virus are the most common ones. The viruses are found in contaminated food or drinking water. Poor hand washing frequently spreads the viruses. The viruses can spread among groups of people, such as schools, employers, or families. Symptoms typically appear within 4 to 48 hours after exposure to the virus.

Bacteria are another common cause of diarrhea and cause the most severe symptoms. Bacterial causes include traveler’s diarrhea, food poisoning, handling undercooked meat or poultry, and handling reptiles with the bacteria. Bacteria related conditions typically last from a few days to a week or more, depending on the cause, and can be associated with bloody bowel movements.

Parasites and chemical toxins can cause diarrhea. Parasites are found in contaminated drinking water or swimming pools. Chemical toxins are most frequently contained in seafood, certain medications, and metals including lead, mercury, and arsenic.

Diarrhea is associated with certain medical conditions. Malabsorption syndromes such as lactose intolerance, gluten malabsorption (celiac disease), and other food intolerances can cause diarrhea. Diarrhea is symptom of inflammatory bowel diseases, such as Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a very common gastrointestinal disorder that causes alternating periods of diarrhea and constipation. Immune deficiency, such as with HIV or AIDS infection, can also result in diarrhea.

Certain medications can cause diarrhea, especially some antibiotics. Laxatives used to treat constipation can sometimes result in diarrhea. Diarrhea is a common side effect of chemotherapy used to treat cancer.

Less common causes of diarrhea include Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome, neuropathy, and carcinoid syndrome. Diarrhea can be a symptom of colon cancer. It may also occur after gastrectomy, the surgical removal of part or all of the stomach. Further, diarrhea can be a side effect of high dose radiation therapy for cancer.

Symptoms of diarrhea include loose, watery soft or liquid stools. You may need to go to the bathroom frequently. Gas and abdominal bloating, cramps, or pain may precede the diarrhea.

Your stools may be any color. Passing blood or red stools can be a sign of a severe infection or other medical condition. Black tarry stools may indicate bleeding in the stomach and may not be a sign of infection. Diarrhea is usually not accompanied by a fever. You should contact your doctor if you experience diarrhea with a fever, bloody stools, or black tarry stools.

Diarrhea can cause dehydration from loss of fluids. Dehydration can be severe and life threatening. It is especially concerning for infants, children, and older adults. Dehydration can cause sleepiness, thirst, and dry mouth. Infants and children may appear to have sunken eyes. An infant’s fontanels, the “soft spots” on the head, may also appear sunken. They may refuse to eat or drink. Older adults with dehydration may experience behavior changes and confusion. Their skin may appear to be loose. Consult your doctor if you or your loved one experiences signs of dehydration.

Most cases of diarrhea can be treated at home. Contact your doctor if you become dehydrated. In cases of severe dehydration, you should have someone take you to the emergency room of a hospital. You should consult your doctor if you are unable to tolerate food or drink, have a high fever, or experience abdominal pain. Contact your doctor if you have black stools, bloody stools, or pus with stools. You should call your doctor if your diarrhea does not improve after a few days or if it becomes worse.

Your doctor will review your medical history and conduct a physical examination to determine the cause of your diarrhea in order to provide appropriate treatment. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms, risk factors, travel history, and if you have been around people with similar symptoms.

Your doctor will ask you questions about your lifestyle, diet, bowel movement patterns, and stools to help make a diagnosis. You doctor may order stool tests, blood tests, and urine tests.

Treatment depends on the cause and severity of your diarrhea. Most cases of diarrhea caused by bacteria or viruses can be treated at home. You should drink plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration. You should avoid drinks that contain caffeine and milk. Milk may make diarrhea worse. Your doctor may recommend hydration drinks for your infant or child. People with severe dehydration may need fluid replacement via an IV line and hospitalization.

Avoid eating greasy foods, fatty foods, and alcohol. Bananas, applesauce, rice, and toast are helpful foods to eat. If you feel too sick to eat, try sucking on ice chips until you can tolerate food.

Your doctor may prescribe antibiotics to treat some types of bacterial infections. However, antibiotics do not work on viruses. Stomach viruses usually go away on their own in a few days. Generally, anti-diarrhea medications should not be given for the stomach flu as they only prolong the infection. You should not take over-the-counter diarrhea medications unless your doctor instructs you to.

Treatments vary for diarrhea caused by other medical conditions. Lifestyle and dietary changes may help some conditions. Ask your doctor for suggestions specific to your condition.

If you have a serious medical condition including HIV, AIDS, diabetes, heart disease, kidney disease, or liver disease, contact your doctor as soon as your diarrhea starts. You may need prompt treatment. You may be at risk for developing complications from diarrhea.

The stomach flu can be prevented with good hand washing. Hands should be washed thoroughly after going to the bathroom and before handling food. You should avoid contaminated food or water. Enzyme supplements are available to help digest foods with lactose. Additionally, there are many lactose-free products and some gluten-free products available on the market.

If you travel to underdeveloped countries, drink only bottled water and do not use ice. Ice made with contaminated water can contain bacteria. Eat only well-cooked foods including meats, vegetables, and shellfish. Do not consume dairy products. Do not eat fruit that does not have a peel.

Infants, children, the elderly, and people with suppressed immune systems have the highest risk for getting diarrhea caused by viruses and bacteria. Your risk is increased if you travel or live in areas with poor sanitation. You are at risk if you eat or drink contaminated food or water.

Severe symptoms can lead to severe dehydration and death. You should consult your doctor if your infant or child has prolonged or severe diarrhea. You should contact your doctor if you are elderly and experiencing severe symptoms.

Call your doctor if your diarrhea lasts longer than a few days. You should call your doctor if you experience symptoms including faintness, dizziness, dry mouth, and blood or pus in your stools. More serious symptoms include a swollen or painful abdomen, fever higher than 101°, vomiting that lasts for more than 48 hours, and dehydration. Extreme thirst, dry mouth, little urine production, and a lack of tears are signs of dehydration. The eyes of children and infants may appear sunken. An infant’s fontanels, the “soft spots” on the head, may also appear sunken. You should have someone take you to a hospital emergency room if you are sleepy or unaware of your surroundings.

In 2006, a vaccine was approved to prevent the rotavirus in infants. Vaccines are available for Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholerae, and rotavirus. Doctors administer the vaccines selectively, based on your foreign travel plans and medical history.

A flexible sigmoidoscopy is a procedure that uses a sigmoidscope to view the inside lining of the rectum and lower section of the colon. A sigmoidscope is a thin tube that is about twenty inches long. It has a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to an eyepiece or a video monitor. The sigmoidscope allows a doctor to examine the inside of the rectum and lower colon for cancer, polyps, and other medical conditions. A sigmoidscope can obtain a tissue sample or biopsy. A flexible sigmoidoscopy is an outpatient procedure that does not require anesthesia or sedation.

Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. As water from the waste product is absorbed, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool or feces. Eventually, it is eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

After you swallow food, it moves through your esophagus and into your stomach. Chemicals in your stomach break down the food into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. Your small intestine breaks down the liquid even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients from the food you ate. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel or colon, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The lower GI tract is divided into sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus. The appendix is located on the cecum, but it does not serve a purpose in the digestive process.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The large intestine moves the stool into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before being traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your digestive tract. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

A sigmoidoscopy is ordered for several reasons. It most frequently used as a screening tool for colon cancer. It is also helpful for determining the cause of bleeding, pain, bowel obstruction, or changes in bowel habits. Additionally, a sigmoidscope can be used for taking photographs and/or obtaining tissue samples for examination.

A flexible sigmoidoscopy is an outpatient procedure performed at a doctor’s office or in a hospital. It does not require sedation or anesthesia. Preparation instructions for a sigmoidoscopy generally consist of methods to empty or clean your bowel prior to the test including the use of laxatives, enemas, or a liquid diet. Your doctor will provide you with specific instructions.

You will wear an examination gown for your flexible sigmoidoscopy. You will lie on your left side with your knees bent for the procedure, also known as the fetal position. A digital rectal examination may be performed before the test. To do so, your doctor will briefly insert a gloved, lubricated finger into your rectum to check for abnormalities such as obstructions.

Your doctor will carefully insert the sigmoidscope through your anus into your rectum and the lower section of your colon. Air and water may be inserted with the scope to open the folds of the colon to provide a better view. Your doctor will carefully and slowly advance the sigmoidscope into your colon. You may need to change positions during the procedure to allow your doctor to best place the sigmoidscope.

The procedure may cause temporary discomfort. It is common to pass gas during and after a flexible sigmoidoscopy. You may experience mild cramping and bleeding after your flexible sigmoidoscopy. Your doctor will instruct you on how to increase your food and liquid intake. Your doctor will also discuss unexpected symptoms related to the test that may occur and a plan to address them.

Your doctor will review the results of your flexible sigmoidoscopy with you after your procedure or during a follow-up appointment. It may take time to receive biopsy results. If any abnormal results were found by your test, your doctor will discuss treatment plan options with you.

Many people have food intolerances, such as lactose intolerance with milk, but true food allergies only affect about 1% of all people. Food allergies are more common in children, and some children outgrow them. People with food allergies should avoid the foods that they are allergic to and receive immunotherapy shots from an allergist. Life threatening allergic reactions require emergency medical treatment.

Your immune system usually fights germs to keep you healthy. If you have allergies, your immune system overreacts to ordinary substances that normally are not harmful. The substances that trigger an allergic reaction are called allergens.

When you are exposed to an allergen, your white blood cells produce antibodies. The antibodies trigger the release of histamine and other chemicals in your blood called mediators. The mediators cause the symptoms of the allergic reaction.

Infants and young children tend to have more allergic reactions to milk, eggs, and peanuts. Some children may outgrow childhood food allergies. The most common foods that cause allergic reactions are:

• Eggs
• Milk
• Peanuts, peanut products such as peanut butter
• Tree nuts, such as walnuts, pecans, almonds, cashews
• Shellfish, such as shrimp, lobster, crab
• Soy nuts or soy products
• Wheat
• Fish

Symptoms of food allergy appear immediately or within a few hours of eating. The primary symptoms of food allergies are wheezing, hives, and a hoarse voice. You may experience difficulty swallowing, difficulty breathing, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, itching, light-headedness, fainting, nasal congestion, and runny nose. Your eyelids, tongue, and lips may swell. Your throat, tongue, mouth, or skin may itch.

A potentially life threatening reaction, anaphylaxis, requires immediate medical treatment. Symptoms of anaphylaxis include hives, itching and pale or flushed (reddened) skin. It can be difficult to breathe if the airways narrow and the throat and tongue swell. A wheezing noise may be heard while breathing. The pulse may feel weak and fast. Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, and fainting can also occur.

A severe anaphylaxis reaction can cause a person to develop anaphylactic shock and stop breathing or stop the heart. Symptoms of anaphylactic shock include a sudden drop in blood pressure, difficulty breathing, and a loss of consciousness. Again, immediate emergency medical treatment is needed. In some cases death can result.

If you are experiencing life threatening symptoms, you should receive emergency medical treatment. If you experience mild symptoms, you should contact your doctor. A blood test or skin test can confirm your allergy.

Again, if you are experiencing severe symptoms, call 911. If you have a mild reaction, your doctor may prescribe antihistamine medication to relieve your symptoms. An emergency shot of epinephrine (EpiPen, EpiPen Jr., Twinject) may be recommended for you to use the next time you have an allergic food reaction. You should still seek emergency medical treatment if you use the shot.

You should avoid the foods to which you are allergic. Read food labels carefully, and ask questions about ingredients when dining out. Infants that are breastfed may have a reduced risk of food allergies.

Wear a medical alert ID bracelet or necklace. Inform your family, co-workers, and others around you that you have a particular food allergy. Carry your emergency shot with you at all times. Instruct those around you how to give you the emergency shot in the event that you are unable to give it to yourself.

An allergist can test you for food allergies and provide preventive immunotherapy shots.

You are at risk for food allergies if you eat foods to which you are allergic. Note that both raw and cooked food can cause food allergies.

A potentially life threatening anaphylaxis reaction can result from a food allergy. Although it is uncommon, death can occur.

Each year more than 76 million cases of food poisoning occur in the United States. Food poisoning occurs when contaminated food is eaten. There are many types of germs that can cause food poisoning. The majority of people with food poisoning recover in a few days with home treatment. Some people require emergency room treatment or hospitalization, and still others do not survive. Following guidelines for food preparation and storage can prevent food poisoning. Outbreaks of food poisoning should be reported to the local health department.

Whenever you eat or drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach.

Your stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. Your stomach processes the food into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. The liquid solidifies as it moves through the large intestine, forming a stool. The stool is eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

Eating contaminated foods causes food poisoning. Bacteria, viruses, and parasites are germs that commonly cause food poisoning. Such germs can contaminate food when it is being prepared or handled.

Food poisoning can cause symptoms within several hours or several days, depending on the contaminant. Symptoms of food poisoning can vary from person to person and can include: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and stomach pain. You may also experience loss of appetite, fever, chills, weakness, and feeling tired. Food poisoning symptoms typically last from one to 10 days.

A doctor can diagnose food poisoning by reviewing your medical history, conducting a physical examination, and viewing the results of tests. You should provide your doctor with a list of all of the foods and beverages that you have consumed recently. Blood, stool, or vomit may be tested to identify the type of germ that caused the food poisoning. Leftover food may be tested as well.

The type of treatment that you receive depends on the type of germ that caused your food poisoning. Common types of food poisoning are not treated with medication, but instead treatment is focused on preventing dehydration. You should drink plenty of fluids (except for milk and caffeinated drinks) to rehydrate yourself. Over-the-counter electrolyte replacement drinks may be recommended for children. If you are unable to tolerate drinking liquids, your doctor may order IV (intravenous) fluid hydration. The majority of people with common types of food poisoning recover in a few days.

Some types of food poisoning are more serious than others and require emergency medical attention. For example, food poisoning from shellfish or mushrooms requires emergency department treatment to empty the stomach. Additionally, antibiotic medicine may be used to treat severe forms and certain types of food poisoning.

You may prevent food poisoning by carefully following instructions for preparing, storing, refrigerating, canning, freezing, defrosting, and cooking foods. Throw away food or beverages that do not appear to be fresh. Clean countertops, food prep areas, and dining ware. Practice good hand washing.

The impact that contaminants have on the body differs from person to person and depends on several variables.

Such factors include:

• the overall health of the person
• age of the person
• how much of the contaminant was consumed
• the type of contaminant

Those at the highest risk include:

• Older adults
• Pregnant women
• Infants and children
• People with compromised immune systems, such as people with diabetes, AIDS, and liver disease, as well as those receiving radiation or chemotherapy for cancer
• People that travel outside of the United States in areas where sanitation is compromised.

Dehydration is a primary concern of food poisoning. You should drink plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration. Symptoms of dehydration include feeling extremely thirsty, producing only small amounts of urine, severe weakness, dizziness or lightheadedness. You should contact your doctor if you become dehydrated.

You should also call your doctor if you have diarrhea that lasts more than three days, blood in your stool, or a temperature greater than 101° F. You should call you doctor if you vomit blood.

Call 911 for emergency medical treatment if you have trouble breathing or swallowing, a racing or pounding heart, difficulty speaking, difficulty swallowing, double vision, fainting, dizziness, paralysis, or excessive blood in your stool.

Gallbladder disease is caused by conditions that slow or block the flow of bile from the gallbladder. Bile is a fluid that breaks down fat during the digestive process. Inflammation or gallstones can block the bile flow. Gallstones are solid particles that result from an imbalance of bile components. When gallstones or bile accumulate, the gallbladder can become painful and inflamed.

Gallstones may not produce symptoms, and some gallstones do not require treatment. Pain is the hallmark symptom when gallstone complications occur. The most common treatment for gallbladder disease is surgical removal of the gallbladder or treatments to eliminate gallstones.

Your gallbladder is a small sac-like organ located in your upper right upper abdomen, under your liver. Your gallbladder works with your liver and pancreas to produce bile and digestive enzymes. Bile is a fluid that breaks down fat in the food you eat for digestion. Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder until it is needed. When you eat high-fat or high-cholesterol foods, your gallbladder contracts and sends bile into your duodenum via the common bile duct. The duodenum is the first part of your small intestine.

Gallbladder disease is caused by conditions that slow or block the flow of bile from the gallbladder. Cholelithiasis is a condition that occurs when gallstones form in the gallbladder. Cholecystitis, also called gallbladder disease, results when the gallbladder is inflamed.

Gallstones are solid particles that form when the gallbladder does not empty properly or when the components of the bile are imbalanced. Bile is composed of cholesterol, bilirubin, bile salts, and other substances. Most gallstones develop when there is too much cholesterol in the bile. These are called cholesterol stones. Stones formed by excess bilirubin are smaller and called pigment stones. Researchers are not sure why some people develop gallstones and others do not.

Cholecystitis occurs when the flow of bile from the gallbladder to the common bile duct is blocked. This leads to the build up of bile in the gallbladder. The over-accumulation of bile causes irritation and pressure in the gallbladder. This can lead to bacterial infection and tearing of the gallbladder. In most cases, gallstones cause the blockage that causes cholecystitis. Other less frequent causes of blockage include severe illness, tumors, and alcohol abuse.

Cholecystitis can be acute or chronic. Acute cholecystitis occurs suddenly usually causing severe pain in the right upper abdomen. Chronic cholecystitis is caused by repeated episodes of acute cholecystitis. Chronic cholecystitis causes the gallbladder to decrease in size and the gallbladder walls to thicken. The gallbladder eventually loses its ability to function.

The majority of gallstones do not cause symptoms. Symptoms may occur when complications develop. The most common symptom of gallstone disease is constant severe and dull pain in your right upper abdomen. The pain usually begins about 30 minutes after eating a high-fat meal. It may spread to your right shoulder and back. The pain associated with gallstones commonly occurs at night and may even awake you from your sleep. You may also experience nausea, vomiting, fever, and indigestion.

The main symptom of acute cholecystitis is a similar pain in the right upper abdomen. Because this condition is usually associated with infection you may occasionally experience nausea, vomiting, and fever. Symptoms of chronic cholecystitis include frequent indigestion, abdominal pain, nausea, and belching.

You should go to the emergency department of a hospital if you also experience abdominal pain that cannot be controlled with over-the-counter medication, vomiting, fever, chills, sweats, or jaundice. Jaundice is a condition caused by an excess of bilirubin. Symptoms of jaundice include yellowing of the eyes and skin, dark urine, pale-colored stools, nausea, and vomiting.

Your doctor can start to diagnose gallstones or gallbladder disease by reviewing your medical history and conducting a physical examination. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms and risk factors. Your doctor may test your blood and urine to help confirm the diagnoses and rule out other diseases with similar symptoms. Your doctor may conduct a series of imaging tests to identify the presence of gallstones or inflammation. Imaging tests are painless and simply require that you remain motionless while pictures are taken. Commonly used tests include abdominal ultrasound, abdominal X-ray, oral cholecystogram, abdominal CT scan, gallbladder radionuclide scan, and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP).

An abdominal ultrasound is used to provide images of your abdominal organs including your gallbladder, liver, pancreas, and spleen. An abdominal ultrasound is useful for identify gallstones, infection, inflammation, or organ enlargement. To take an ultrasound, a technician will gently move and place a small device across your abdomen. The device transmits sound waves to a monitor for viewing.

An abdominal X-ray is used to find a mass or gallstone. An oral cholecystogram (OCG) involves using a dye to enhance the X-ray images. The dye is safe and swallowed before the X-ray is taken. Abdominal ultrasound and OCG are considered to be excellent methods for identifying gallstones.

An abdominal CT scan is used to examine the gallbladder and bile ducts. It can show gallstones, blockages, and other structural complications. A CT scan takes pictures in slices that together, compose a full picture of the abdomen. A CT scan shows more detail than an X-ray.

A gallbladder radionuclide scan, also called a Cholescintigraphy (HIDA scan), is used to check gallbladder function and identifying acute gallbladder infection or blocked bile ducts. For the test, a radioactive substance is injected into a vein. The substance pools in the liver and flows into the gallbladder, as bile would. Scanning reveals the route of the substance on images.

An ERCP uses an endoscope to view the biliary system. An endoscope is a thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument at the end of it. After sedation, a thin tube is passed through your mouth and into your small intestines. It can administer dye to enhance views. In some cases, it is used for surgery to remove a gallstone.

The treatment you receive depends on the degree of your gallbladder disease, gallstones, and symptoms. Many people with gallstones do not have symptoms and do not need treatment. Some cases of cholecystitis can improve with the use of medications such as antibiotics. However, when symptoms persist, surgery may be used to remove the gallbladder and the gallstones. The most common surgery is laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy uses a small lighted camera, a laparoscope, to guide the surgery. A Laparoscopic cholecystectomy uses small incisions, which shortens the recovery time. It is feasible to have the surgery in the morning and return home on the same day.

Medications may be used to treat gallstones. The medication works to dissolve the gallstones. This process can take a long time, up to a few years.

Electrohydraulic shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) can also be used to treat gallstones. ESWL uses high-energy shock waves to break up the gallstones. This method is sometimes used in conjunction with dissolving medications.

Researchers do not know why some people form gallstones and others do not. Researchers do not know how to prevent gallstones. Maintaining an appropriate weight and consuming a low-fat, low-cholesterol diet may help reduce the symptoms of gallbladder disease and gallstones.

Risk factors may increase your likelihood of developing gallbladder disease and gallstones. People with all of the risk factors may never develop the disease; however, the chance of developing the condition increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Risk factors for gallstones:

• Obesity is one of the biggest risk factors for gallstones. Obesity is associated with increased levels of cholesterol leading to the production of gallstones.
• Increased levels of estrogen can increase cholesterol levels and result in reduced bile emptying. Women who are pregnant, taking birth control pills or hormone replacement therapy have higher levels of estrogen.
• Native Americans and Mexican Americans have higher incidence of gallstones.
• Women develop more gallstones than men.
• Gallstones are more common in older people.
• People with diabetes have an increased risk for gallstone formation because they tend to have higher levels of triglycerides, a type of blood fat.
• Losing weight rapidly can cause the liver to produce extra cholesterol, which is associated with gallstone formation.
• Fasting or not eating for extended periods of time can cause a reduction in gallbladder contractions and lead to gallstone formation.
• People with liver disease, blood disease, or high levels of bilirubin are at risk for developing pigmented gallstones.

Risk factors for chronic cholecystitis include:

• Repeated episodes of acute cholecystitis can lead to chronic cholecystitis.
• Gallstones are the most common cause of cholecystitis.
• Cholecystitis occurs more frequently in women than men.
• Most cases of cholecystitis occur after the age of 40 years old.

Complications from gallbladder disease and gallstones include infection or tissue death in the gallbladder and inflammation in the lining of the abdomen. Pancreatitis can occur from jaundice or bile duct obstruction. Pancreatitis is a condition that causes the pancreas to be inflamed.

Gas symptoms occur daily as part of your normal digestive process. Belching, burping, and passing gas (flatulence) eliminates gas from your digestive tract. Excess gas can cause discomfort, pain, and bloating.

Gas symptoms are produced by swallowed air and the breakdown of certain foods by bacteria in the digestive system. In some cases, gas and bloating can be symptoms of gastrointestinal (GI) disorders. Treatment depends on the cause of the gas symptoms. Treatments may include dietary changes, changing how you eat, and medications. Underlying medical conditions may require more specific treatments.

Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach.

Your stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. Your stomach processes the food you eat into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. The liquid solidifies as it moves through the large intestine, forming a stool. The stool is eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

Gas and bloating is very common. It typically results from two sources, swallowed air and the breakdown of foods by bacteria in the digestive system. Gas and bloating may also be symptoms of certain gastrointestinal (GI) conditions.

Air swallowing causes stomach gas. You naturally swallow some air when you eat and drink. However, smoking, chewing gum, wearing loose dentures, and eating or drinking too quickly may cause you to swallow too much air. Most of the extra air leaves the stomach when you burp or belch. A small portion of the extra air travels through the digestive system and is released as gas.

Gas and bloating may result if your body does not digest and absorb certain food components in your small intestine. Some people lack or have a shortage of enzymes that are necessary to digest carbohydrates. Carbohydrates include sugar, starch, and fiber found in many foods. The undigested carbohydrates travel to the large intestine where they are broken down by harmless bacteria. This process can result in gas and bloating.

The carbohydrates that produce gas and bloating in one person may not cause symptoms in another person. Sugars with the greatest potential to cause gas include raffinose, lactose, fructose, and sorbitol. Some foods contain more than one of these types of sugars. Beans contain a large amount of raffinose. Other foods with raffinose include cabbage, brussel sprouts, broccoli, other vegetables, and whole grains. Lactose is contained in milk and milk products, such as ice cream and cheese. It is also a component of processed foods including cereal and salad dressings. Tree fruits, berries, honey, onions, some vegetables, and wheat contain fructose. Fructose is used as a sweetener in soda pop and fruit drinks. Sorbitol is found in tree fruits. It is used as a sweetener in diet foods and sugar-free candies.

Some starchy foods produce gas when they are broken down in the stomach. Such foods include potatoes, corn, noodles, and wheat products. Additionally, foods containing soluble fiber do not break down until they reach the large intestine. Soluble fiber is found in oat bran, beans, peas, and most fruits.

Eating high-fat food products can cause bloating and discomfort, with lesser amounts of gas. Fatty foods can slow or delay stomach emptying. This can lead to the accumulation of gas, upper abdominal pressure, nausea or vomiting.

Chronic belching can be a symptom of certain medical conditions. Some upper GI disorders can cause an overproduction of stomach gas, which results in belching and burping. Peptic ulcer disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), hiatal hernia, and gastroparesis (slow stomach emptying) are some upper GI disorders that can cause belching.

Gas and bloating can be the symptom of certain lower GI disorders. Some lower GI disorders can cause inflammation or increased sensitivity in the colon, making gas especially uncomfortable. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), Inflammatory Bowel Disease, colon cancer, chronic constipation, and celiac sprue are some lower GI conditions that can result in gas and bloating.

Gas symptoms occur daily as part of your normal digestive process. However, excessive gas symptoms may also be caused by certain medical conditions. Belching, burping, and passing gas eliminates gas from your digestive tract. Excess gas can cause discomfort, pain, and bloating. Sometimes gas may have a bad odor.

Your doctor can start to diagnose the cause of your gas symptoms and determine appropriate treatment. To diagnose the cause of your gas symptoms, your doctor will review your medical history and conduct a physical examination. Tell your doctor about your dietary habits, symptoms, and any changes in your bowel habits. Your doctor may ask you to keep a journal of the food you eat and the symptoms you experience. Depending on your symptoms and risk factors, your doctor may order blood, stool, or imaging tests to identify or rule out gastrointestinal conditions that may cause your symptoms.

Treatment for gas, belching, and bloating depends on what is causing the excess gas. Changes in how you eat and what you eat may help. You can reduce the amount of air that you swallow by not smoking, not chewing gum, and eating and drinking slower. It may help to limit or avoid the foods that cause you gas. Over-the-counter digestive enzymes may help digest carbohydrates and allow you to eat certain foods that normally cause you gas. Additionally, over-the-counter antacid medications can help remove gas from your digestive tract.

The treatment for upper and lower GI conditions depends on the condition type, extent of the condition, and magnitude of your symptoms. Upper and lower GI conditions can be treated in a variety of ways including lifestyle changes, dietary changes, medications, and surgery. Your doctor will discuss appropriate treatment options with you if you are diagnosed with a GI disorder.

You can avoid gas by avoiding or limiting foods that cause gas symptoms. Food triggers are different for everyone. You may also use over-the-counter digestive enzymes to allow you to eat foods that normally cause gas. It is also helpful to eat and drink slowly to avoid swallowing air. Further, it is helpful to avoid smoking, chewing gum, and eating hard candies.

You should contact your doctor if you experience excessive gas or pain. You should contact your doctor if you have changes in your bowel habits, blood in your stool, black tarry stools, or vomit blood. These can be signs of digestive system disorders and need your doctor’s prompt attention.

Anyone can experience gas, bloating, and belching. It commonly occurs to everyone, everyday. However, for some people gas, bloating, and belching may happen quite frequently and be bothersome or uncomfortable.

Factors associated with gas, bloating, and belching:

• Swallowing air can cause stomach pain, burping, and belching. Smoking, chewing gum, wearing loose dentures, and eating or drinking too quickly may cause you to swallow too much air.
• If you lack digestive enzymes in your small intestine, you may be unable to digest certain types of carbohydrates. Food intolerance can cause gas and bloating.
• Some starchy foods, high-fiber foods, and high-fat foods can cause gas in certain people.
• Belching and burping can be symptoms of some upper GI disorders.
• Bloating and gas can be symptoms of some lower GI disorders.

Gas, belching, and bloating are a normal part of the digestive process and are not life-threatening symptoms. In some cases, excess gas production can be the symptom of a serious GI condition. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms and discuss your concerns.

Obesity is a growing nationwide epidemic. Obesity is associated with serious health problems, including heart disease, diabetes, and high blood pressure. Doctors may recommend the gastric banding weight loss surgery for people that are very obese and have not lost weight with diet and exercise.

Laparoscopic gastric banding reduces the size of the stomach to assist in weight loss. Because the weight loss surgery is performed laparoscopically using small incisions, recovery is faster and less complicated than with other weight loss procedures. Laparoscopic gastric banding can result in a 40% to 60% weight loss over the first three years after the procedure.

Gastric banding is not a quick fix for obesity. Instead, gastric banding requires preparation and careful consideration. You should anticipate making permanent lifestyle changes, including diet and exercise following the weight-loss surgery.

Doctors may recommend gastric banding for people:

• With a Body Mass Index (BMI) of 40 or more
• With a Body Mass Index of 35 or more and a serious medical condition, such as type 2 diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, arthritis, or sleep apnea, that might improve with weight reduction
• That are not dependent on drugs or alcohol
• That do not smoke
• That are mentally stable

When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach. Muscles in the wall of the esophagus slowly squeeze the food toward your stomach.

A ring of muscles is located at the bottom of the esophagus. It is called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). The LES opens to allow food to enter the stomach. The LES closes tightly after the food enters. This prevents stomach contents and acids from backing up into the esophagus. The esophagus does not secrete mucus that protects it from stomach acids.

The stomach secretes mucus to protect its lining from the acids. Your stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion and processes the food you eat into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to the small intestine.

The small intestine is a tube that is about 20-22 feet long and 1 ½ to 2 inches around. The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. It is a short C-shaped structure that extends off of the stomach. The jejunum and the ileum are the middle and final sections of the small intestine.

Your gallbladder works with your liver and pancreas to send bile and digestive enzymes to the first part of your small intestine. Your small intestine uses these digestive products to further break down the liquid from your stomach so your body can absorb the nutrients from the food that you ate. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel or colon, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The lower GI tract is divided into sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus.The appendix is located on the cecum, but it does not serve a purpose in the digestive process.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The large intestine moves the stool into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before being traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your digestive tract. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

You weight loss surgeon will request that you visit other health professionals. You will need a complete physical including blood tests, ultrasound, and lab tests. Your doctor will document that you are healthy enough for surgery.

You will participate in classes to learn more about the laparoscopic gastric banding procedure and healthy eating. By attending classes about gastric banding, you will gain an understanding of the preparation process before surgery, the surgical procedure, what to expect during recovery, realistic outcomes, and risks. You will learn about healthy eating and healthy living before and after your weight loss surgery.

You will meet with a mental health provider. The decision to have weight loss surgery is a very individualized and personal. A mental health provider can help determine if you are ready for such a dramatic lifestyle change.

Laparoscopic lap-band gastric surgery is a short procedure, usually one hour or less. You may stay overnight in the hospital, although some people go home the same day as the surgery. You will receive general anesthesia for the lap-band surgery.

To begin, your surgeon will make a few small incisions in your abdomen. She will insert a laparoscope through the incisions during your surgery. A laparoscope is a thin tube with a viewing device. The laparoscope transmits images to a monitor. The images allow the surgeon to view the inside of the body during the procedure.

The surgeon performs the procedure by passing thin surgical instruments through the other small incisions during the lap band procedure. Your surgeon will create a small pouch in your stomach by placing a band around the upper stomach. The band divides the stomach into two sections, the pouch is in the upper smaller section and the other portion of the stomach is the lower larger section. The band constricts the stomach to create a narrow opening between the two sections.

The band is hollow and adjustable in size. Your surgeon can adjust the size of the opening by filling the band with saline solution through a port placed beneath the skin. The band size can be increased or decreased in the same manner following surgery.

Because lap-band stomach surgery uses small incisions, it is associated with a fast recovery time and minimal scarring. Most patients return to work one week after surgery.

Follow your doctor's instructions carefully following lap-band surgery. You will need to adopt a long-term plan for eating and exercise. You will begin on a liquid diet, then a pureed diet, and advance slowly to solid healthy foods. Most people eat small portions of solid healthy foods the third week after surgery.

The new pouch is substantially smaller than your stomach; about the size of an egg. The pouch will fill quickly when you eat and empty slowly. You will feel fuller sooner and less hungry. Eating too much food can cause vomiting or pain.

Your doctor will adjust the size of the band six weeks after your procedure. You will receive band adjustments periodically thereafter, depending on how much weight you lose and how much you can eat.

You can expect to lose 40% to 60% of your excess weight over the first three years. Your success depends directly on your ability to follow your diet and exercise plan. In many cases, medical conditions associated with obesity resolve or improve following weight loss.

Gastric banding weight loss surgery is associated with certain risks, including those associated with general surgery. Your doctor will review the risks of laparoscopic gastric banding with you prior to the procedure. People that are not able to follow diet and exercise recommendations regain weight or fail to experience weight loss. The band is removable with surgery.

Gastroenteritis is irritation and inflammation of the stomach and intestines. It is most frequently caused by viral or bacterial infection. Symptoms of gastroenteritis include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. Usually, treatment is aimed at preventing dehydration. Certain bacterial causes are treated with antibiotics. Gastroenteritis typically lasts from a few days to a week or more, depending on the cause.

Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach.

Your stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. Your stomach processes the food you eat into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. The liquid solidifies as it moves through the large intestine, forming a stool. The stool is eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement

There are several causes of gastroenteritis. It is most frequently caused by viral or bacterial infection. Viruses are found in contaminated food and water. Poor hand washing most commonly transmits viruses. Bacterial causes include traveler’s diarrhea, food poisoning, handling undercooked meat or poultry, and handling reptiles with the bacteria.

Parasites, chemical toxins, and food intolerance can cause gastroenteritis. Parasites are found in contaminated drinking water or swimming pools. Chemical toxins are most frequently contained in seafood, certain medications, and metals including lead, mercury, and arsenic. Food allergies or lactose intolerance, the inability to digest milk or cheese products, can also cause gastroenteritis.

Common symptoms of gastroenteritis include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, a low fever, and cramping or abdominal pain. You should call your doctor if you feel weak, dizzy, or experience serious symptoms. More serious symptoms include a swollen or painful abdomen, fever higher than 101°, vomiting that lasts for more than 48 hours, bloody bowel movements, and dehydration. Extreme thirst, dry mouth, little urine production, and a lack of tears are signs of dehydration. You should have someone take you to a hospital emergency room if you are sleepy or unaware of your surroundings.

Your doctor can start to diagnose gastroenteritis by reviewing your medical history and conducting a physical examination. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms and any possible exposures to contaminants or toxins. Your doctor may test your blood and stool to help determine the cause of your illness. Your doctor will also evaluate how dehydrated you are.

The main goal of treatment for gastroenteritis is to rehydrate. Fluids, salts, and minerals need to be replaced. Your doctor may recommend hydration drinks for your infant or child. People with severe dehydration may need fluid replacement via an IV line.

Certain bacteria are treated with antibiotics. Antibiotics are not a treatment for viruses. Medications may be recommended to reduce vomiting. Gastroenteritis typically lasts from a few days to a week or more, depending on the cause. Your doctor will instruct you on how to gradually increase your diet to solid foods after your illness has stopped.

You can prevent the transmission gastroenteritis with good hand washing. Hands should be washed thoroughly after going to the bathroom and before handling food. You should avoid contaminated food or water. Enzyme supplements are available to help digest foods with lactose. Additionally, there are many lactose-free products available on the market.

Infants, children, the elderly, and people with suppressed immune systems have the highest risk for getting severe symptoms from gastroenteritis. Your risk is increased if you travel or live in areas with poor sanitation. You are at risk if you eat or drink contaminated food or water.

You should call your doctor if you feel weak, dizzy, or experience serious symptoms. More serious symptoms include a swollen or painful abdomen, fever higher than 101°, vomiting that lasts for more than 48 hours, bloody bowel movements, and dehydration. Extreme thirst, dry mouth, little urine production, and a lack of tears are signs of dehydration. You should have someone take you to a hospital emergency room if you are sleepy or unaware of your surroundings.

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) is a digestive condition. It is also called Peptic Esophagitis and Reflux Esophagitis. GERD results when stomach contents and stomach acids enter the esophagus. The esophagus is the tube that transfers food from your throat to your stomach. At the bottom of the esophagus, a ring of muscles opens to allow food into the stomach. Normally, the ring closes tightly after the food has entered. With GERD, the ring does not close tightly. Instead, it remains open and allows stomach contents and acids to pass back into the esophagus, damaging the lining.

GERD is a common condition. The main symptom of GERD is heartburn. GERD can be prevented. It is treated with lifestyle changes and medications. Surgery is rarely needed. Untreated GERD can result in serious medical complications.

Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach. When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Muscles in your esophagus wall slowly squeeze the food toward your stomach.

A ring of muscles is located at the bottom of the esophagus. It is called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). The LES opens to allow food to enter the stomach. The LES closes tightly after the food enters. This prevents stomach contents and acids from entering the esophagus.

The stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. The stomach secretes mucus to protect the lining of the stomach from the acids. The esophagus does not secrete mucus and is not protected from stomach acids.

GERD occurs when the LES remains relaxed and opened. Reflux happens when the stomach acids and contents “back up” and enter the esophagus. The stomach acids irritate and damage the lining of the esophagus.

The exact cause of the LES relaxation is not known. There are some factors that can make the condition worse either by directly irritating the esophagus or relaxing the LES. Such lifestyle factors include cigarette smoking, consuming alcohol, and poor posture/ slouching.

GERD can occur during pregnancy. The LES may not close tightly during pregnancy because of the relaxing effects of hormones and increased abdominal pressure. Other medical conditions associated with GERD include diabetes, obesity, scleroderma, and hiatal hernia. Additionally, certain medications that relax the LES may contribute to GERD.

Finally, poor eating habits can contribute to GERD. Overeating, eating large meals, and eating before bedtime or lying down can cause food to back up from the stomach into the esophagus. Some foods are especially irritating. These include fatty and fried foods; chocolate; garlic and onions; beverages or food containing caffeine; spicy foods; foods high in acid, such as tomatoes and citrus fruits; and candy or food containing mint flavorings.

The major symptom of GERD is heartburn. Heartburn causes uncomfortable or burning pain behind the breastbone. You may experience heartburn after eating, lying down, or bending forward. Heartburn from GERD usually occurs within two hours after eating. If your heartburn lasts for several hours, you may have severe GERD. Some people experience heartburn and do not have GERD. Some people with GERD do not experience heartburn. However, if you experience symptoms more than twice a week, you may have GERD.

GERD can cause chest pain with heartburn. The pain may feel dull and heavy in your chest.

Heartburn does not involve your heart in any way. The condition was named “heartburn” because the area of discomfort is located near the heart. However, the chest pain with heartburn can be confused with the chest pain associated with a heart attack. You should call emergency services if you suspect you are having a heart attack. Symptoms of a heart attack include chest pain that is crushing or squeezing, or a feeling like a heavy weight is on your chest. These symptoms may occur with sweating, shortness of breath, nausea or vomiting, dizziness, lightheadedness, and pain that spreads from the chest to the neck or jaw.

GERD can cause you to have a sour or bitter taste in your mouth. This occurs because of the back flow of stomach acid. You may have bad breath. You may also produce an excessive amount of saliva.

Your voice may be hoarse in the morning. You may have trouble swallowing. It may feel like there is something stuck in your throat. You may have laryngitis, a sore throat, and a frequent need to clear your throat.

Certain lung problems may occur with GERD. You may experience difficulty with breathing. You may cough or wheeze. GERD can contribute to asthma and worsen the symptoms of asthma in people who already have it.

Your doctor may be able to diagnose GERD during an office visit by listening to your symptoms. If you have experienced symptoms for a long time or your symptoms do not get better with medication, your doctor may refer you to a gastroenterologist for some stomach tests. A gastroenterologist is a doctor that specializes in digestive tract conditions.

You may be referred for a test called an Upper Gastrointestinal (GI) Endoscopy. An endoscope is a thin tube with a tiny light and camera at the very end. After you are lightly sedated, the thin endoscope will be placed in your mouth and down your esophagus. Your doctor will be able to see the condition of your esophagus by viewing the images sent from the camera to a video monitor. The Upper GI Endoscopy allows your doctor to identify inflammation, bleeding, cancer, ulcers, other conditions, or narrowing of your esophagus. Your doctor will also be able to rule out other conditions such as Barrett’s esophagus, a complication of GERD, or peptic ulcers, by taking a tissue sample.

An Esophageal Manometry measures the muscle function in the esophagus and the LES. A thin tube will be placed in your esophagus through your nose or mouth. During the test you will be asked to swallow your saliva and to swallow liquids. The tube has sensors that detect the pressure in various parts of the esophagus. As the esophagus muscles contract and squeeze the tube, the pressures are transmitted and recorded in a computer.

pH Monitoring determines how much stomach acid backs up into the esophagus and how long it stays there. It also measures the strength of your stomach acid. This test may take place over a period of time, such as 24 hours. Your doctor will place a very thin tube through your nose and into your esophagus. This device will measure your stomach acid levels as you go about your regular activities. A newer version of pH Monitoring uses a tiny capsule that is placed in the esophagus. The capsule measures pH levels and transmits the results by radio wave to a receiver that you wear on a belt. After about 48 hours the capsule passes harmlessly through your digestive tract.

The goals of GERD treatment are to reduce reflux, relieve symptoms, and prevent damage to the esophagus. Some doctors recommend treating GERD in a step-wise fashion. For cases of mild GERD, lifestyle changes may be enough. The second step is to use nonprescription antacids. More severe cases may need prescription medication or surgery. Surgery is never the first treatment option for GERD.

Simple lifestyle changes may help relieve the symptoms of mild GERD. These include not smoking, not drinking alcohol, and not consuming foods that irritate the esophagus. It is helpful to eat small meals throughout the day instead of large meals. You should avoid eating before bedtime or lying down after you eat. It can be helpful to raise the head of your bed six inches. Additionally, you should maintain a healthy weight and good posture.

If lifestyle changes do not work, it can be helpful to use an over-the-counter antacid. Antacids work by neutralizing the stomach acid and coating the stomach. Antacids relieve symptoms rapidly, but only temporarily. If you need antacids for over two weeks, you should contact your doctor and discuss other appropriate treatments.

Your doctor may prescribe a stronger medication, usually acid blockers or histamine-2 (H2) blockers. These drugs block acid creation in the stomach. They prevent GERD because there is less acid to back up into the esophagus. If the acid blockers fail, your doctor may prescribe medications that are proton pump inhibitors. Proton pump inhibitors stop all acid production in the stomach. Another medication option is promotility drugs. Promotility drugs speed up the rate that the stomach empties food and acid. They also help to tighten the LES. This helps to prevent stomach acid from backing up into the esophagus.

You may need surgery if prescription medications fail and you are experiencing serious complications. The operation for GERD is called a fundoplication. It involves tightening the LES and tying the stomach to prevent stomach acid from entering the esophagus. Fundoplication surgery is successful for most people.

People with GERD should follow their doctor’s recommendations and take their medication as directed. People who take medications should still work to make lifestyle changes to reduce the symptoms of and prevent the advancement of GERD. There are several things that you can do to prevent reflux and irritation to the esophagus.

To prevent GERD, you should not smoke, drink alcohol, or consume foods that irritate the esophagus. Do not overeat, eat large meals, or eat before bedtime or lying down. Avoid foods that are especially irritating. These include fatty and fried foods; chocolate; garlic and onions; beverages or food containing caffeine; spicy foods; foods high in acid, such as tomatoes and citrus fruits; and candy or food containing mint flavorings. It is also helpful to maintain a healthy weight and good posture.

Risk factors may increase your likelihood of developing GERD. People with all of the risk factors may never develop the condition; however, the chance of developing GERD increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Risk factors for GERD:

• Being overweight or obese can increase abdominal pressure, causing food to back up into the esophagus.
• If you are pregnant, the hormones produce during pregnancy can relax the LES. The hormones can also relax the muscles in the esophagus and cause food to move more slowly. Additionally, abdominal pressure during pregnancy can cause food to back up into the esophagus.
• Cigarette smoking is an irritant. The nicotine from tobacco relaxes the LES. Cigarette smoking can also reduce the amount of saliva that you produce. A lack of saliva can make the esophagus lining more sensitive to the stomach acids. It can also cause your heartburn to be more severe.
• Drinking alcohol increases the likelihood that stomach acids will back up into the esophagus.
• Eating certain foods can relax the LES. Such foods include chocolate, caffeine products, fatty foods, greasy foods, spicy foods, citrus products, tomato-based foods, mints, or mint flavored foods.
• Certain medications can aggravate reflux in some people. Over-the-counter medications include aspirin and ibuprofen. This also includes certain prescription medications for asthma, emphysema, and osteoporosis.
• Older adults have an increased risk because the esophagus muscles can weaken with age. The esophagus may lose its wave pattern or have weak inconsistent contractions.
• Scleroderma increases the risk of developing GERD. Scleroderma is a rare autoimmune disease in which a person’s immune system destroys healthy tissues.
• A hiatal hernia increases the risk of developing GERD. A hiatal hernia occurs when a part of the stomach protrudes through the muscles and into the chest wall. A major symptom of a hiatal hernia is the back flow of stomach acid into the esophagus.

Several serious medical complications can result from advanced GERD. The back flow of stomach acid contributes to these conditions. Some people with advanced GERD may experience bleeding or difficulty swallowing. Inflammation can affect the structures in the esophagus, throat, voice box, nasal airways, and lungs. The stomach acid can also harm tooth enamel. Further, researchers suspect that there may be a connection between untreated GERD and esophageal cancer.

A newer version of pH Monitoring uses a tiny capsule that is placed in the esophagus. The capsule measures pH levels and transmits the results by radio wave to a receiver that you wear on a belt. After about 48 hours the capsule passes harmlessly through your digestive tract. This newer method eliminates the need for a nose tube.

Research trials are focusing on new surgery methods. The research trials will determine if the new surgery methods are safe and effective treatments for GERD. These include the Stretta Radiofrequency Procedure, EndoCinch Procedure, and Enteryx Injections. The Stretta Radiofrequency Procedure involves using radiofrequency delivered through the endoscope to tighten the LES. The EndoCinch Procedure uses an endoscopic sewing device to place sutures to correct the LES. Enteryx Injections are delivered by the endoscope. Enteryx is a medication that forms a spongy mass in the esophagus and reinforces the LES to prevent the back flow of stomach acid.

Hepatitis means that the liver is inflamed. Liver inflammation can occur for several reasons, and there are different types of hepatitis. Hepatitis B and C result from viral infections. Hepatitis B and C, are transmitted from an infected person to a non-infected person in blood or other body fluids, such as semen and vaginal secretions.

Hepatitis B and C may or may not cause symptoms. Chronic forms of these diseases can result in life-threatening medical complications and death. In some cases, medications can slow progression of the disease. A liver transplant is the only permanent treatment for total liver failure. There is a vaccine to prevent Hepatitis B. There is not a vaccine to prevent Hepatitis C.

Your liver is one of the largest organs in your body, second only to your skin. The liver is unique in that it can regenerate itself. If part of the liver is removed, the liver can grow tissue to be whole again. Your liver performs over 100 functions—most of them are related to keeping you alive and healthy. The main structures and functions of the liver are described below.

Your liver is divided into right and left lobes. It is further divided into smaller lobes called the caudate and quadrate lobes. The right lobe is the largest part of your liver.

About 25% of your total blood volume passes through your liver each minute. Your liver receives blood from two sources, the portal vein and the hepatic artery. Additionally, blood from your spleen drains into the splenic vein and connects with the portal vein. Most of the blood received by your liver is from the portal vein. Blood travels from your heart and through your gastrointestinal tract before returning to your liver via the portal vein. This way, your liver is the first to receive substances from digested food.

Your liver receives toxins, alcohol, nutrients, germs, and medications from your digestive tract. As a result, one function of the liver is to metabolize toxins, alcohol, nutrients, and medications. The liver kills germs that enter your body through your intestines.

The hepatic artery is the second source of blood supply to the liver. Blood delivered through the hepatic artery comes directly from the heart. It is higher in oxygen than blood from the portal vein. Once inside the liver, blood from the portal vein and the hepatic artery mix. The blood flows through tiny blood vessels in the liver called sinusoids. Components in the blood are delivered by the sinusoids to the hepatocytes.

Hepatocytes are the major cell type in the liver. The hepatocytes metabolize nutrients, toxins, and drugs from the blood. Blood leaves the liver through the hepatic vein. The blood flows through the vena cava and back to the heart.

The hepatocytes perform numerous chemical processing functions that are necessary to keep you healthy and alive. The hepatocytes play a role in blood clotting and secreting albumin. Albumin helps to regulate the amount of fluids in your body.

The hepatocytes metabolize nutrients including carbohydrates, fats, cholesterol, and proteins. Your liver functions to maintain appropriate ammonia and blood sugar (glucose) levels. Correct levels of ammonia are necessary for good brain functioning. Your cells use blood sugar for energy. Your liver also stores vitamins, iron, and other minerals.

Another function of the hepatocytes is to filter certain compounds from the blood. Blood arriving from the portal vein contains environmental toxins that were absorbed in the stomach. The liver “detoxifies” or filters the toxins from the blood. The toxins are secreted by your kidneys in urine or secreted into bile that leaves the liver.

Bile is a substance that is produced by your liver and stored in your gallbladder. When you eat fatty foods, bile leaves your gallbladder via the common bile duct and travels to the duodenum, the first part of your small intestine. There, the bile aids in breaking down fats for digestion.

Bile receives its yellow color from bilirubin. Bilirubin is formed from the break down of old red blood cells. Your spleen breaks down your old red blood cells. The hepatocytes metabolize the hemoglobin in old red blood cells into a form of bilirubin that can be excreted with bile. This form of bilirubin is called “conjugated bilirubin.” It eventually is removed from your body in your urine or stools. Only a very small amount returns to your bloodstream.

The liver is unique in that it can regenerate itself. If part of the liver is removed, the liver can re-grow tissue. You need a liver to live. If the liver is severely damaged, it needs to be replaced.

Hepatitis means that the liver is inflamed. Liver inflammation can occur for several reasons, and there are different types of Hepatitis. Hepatitis B and C result from viral infections. There is a vaccine to prevent Hepatitis B. There is not a vaccine to prevent Hepatitis C.

Hepatitis B is caused by infection from the hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C is caused by infection from the hepatitis C virus (HCV). HBV and HCV are categorized as blood-borne viruses because they are transmitted from an infected person to a non-infected person in blood or other body fluids, such as semen and vaginal secretions.

Hepatitis B and C can be sudden and short term (acute) or ongoing and long term (chronic). A small amount of people with hepatitis B develop a severe condition called fulminant hepatitis. This form of acute hepatitis B is severe and life threatening. Most people that contract hepatitis B are able to fight the infection. However, some adults with acute hepatitis B develop chronic hepatitis B. Chronic hepatitis B is a serious liver disease that can become a permanent condition. Further, people with chronic HBV are chronic carriers of the virus and can transmit it other people, even if they do not get sick.

Hepatitis C is the most common cause of viral hepatitis and one of the most common causes of chronic liver disease in the United States. The majority of people infected with hepatitis C develop chronic hepatitis C, however, most remain without symptoms. HCV can lead to serious and life threatening medical conditions. Both HBV and HCV can cause liver cirrhosis, end-stage liver disease, and liver cancer. Cirrhosis causes the liver to scar, become hard, and stop functioning. In cases of liver failure, a liver transplant is the only permanent treatment.

Some people with hepatitis B and many people with hepatitis C do not experience symptoms. Both forms of hepatitis produce similar symptoms including abdominal pain, loss of appetite, nausea, and vomiting. You may feel tired all of the time. Your skin may itch and you may develop jaundice, a yellowing of the skin and eyes. The color of your urine may change and become as dark as cola or tea. The color of your stools may change and become gray or clay colored.

Fulminant hepatitis is an uncommon and severe form of acute hepatitis B. Symptoms of fulminant hepatitis can occur suddenly and be life threatening. Symptoms of fulminant hepatitis include abdominal swelling and jaundice. You may feel extremely tired and collapse. Fulminant hepatitis can cause hepatic encephalopathy, a brain condition. Hepatic encephalopathy can cause confusion, hallucinations, extreme tiredness, extreme sleepiness, and coma.

Fluid loss associated with nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite can lead to dehydration. Dehydration can be severe and life threatening. Dehydration causes sleepiness, thirst, and dry mouth. It can produce a lack of tears and urine production. Older adults with dehydration may experience behavior changes and confusion. Their skin may appear to be loose. Consult your doctor if you or your loved one experiences signs of dehydration.

Many people without symptoms do not know that they have hepatitis B or C. For some, it may be discovered during blood testing for physicals or insurance exams. You should contact your doctor if you think someone with hepatitis has possibly exposed you. You should contact your doctor if you think you are at risk for hepatitis. Further, you should contact your doctor if experience the symptoms of hepatitis B and C.

Your doctor can start to diagnose hepatitis B or C by reviewing your medical history and conducting a physical examination. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors, possible exposures, and symptoms. Your doctor will test your blood for antibodies specific to hepatitis. Antibodies are produced by your immune system to defend against a certain infection. The antibody tests can indicate which type of hepatitis you have. Blood tests will also be used to assess your liver functioning. Your doctor may test for exposure to other viruses as well, such as HIV. Imaging tests and a liver biopsy (obtaining a tissue sample for examination) may be needed in cases of advanced liver disease.

Some symptoms of hepatitis B and C can be treated at home. You should drink plenty of foods and eat balanced meals to maintain adequate nutrition and hydration. If you experience dehydration, you should contact your doctor. Some people may need intravenous (IV) fluids. Your doctor can prescribe medications to reduce nausea and vomiting. You should avoid drinking alcohol and using street drugs. You should avoid using medications that contain acetaminophen, such as Tylenol, because they may harm the liver. Get plenty of rest and avoid strenuous exercise until your symptoms improve.

Treatment for and recovery from acute hepatitis B differs from person to person. Most cases of acute hepatitis B resolve on their own. There is no treatment to prevent acute hepatitis B from becoming chronic hepatitis B.

Antiviral medications can help stop the HBV from multiplying in some people with chronic hepatitis B virus and allow the liver to heal. Antiviral medications do not work for all people, and they may not be an appropriate option for select individuals. In some cases of liver failure, a liver transplant is the only treatment that may help.

There is no cure for hepatitis C. Some people with hepatitis C respond to prescription medications that fight HCV including interferon products and antiviral medications, or a combination of both. The long term medical consequences of hepatitis C differ from person to person. Some people never develop complications. Like hepatitis B, the only permanent treatment for end-stage liver disease is a liver transplant.

If you have been diagnosed with hepatitis, you will have regular appointments with your doctor. It is important that you attend all of your appointments and follow your doctor’s instructions. Do not drink alcohol or use street drugs. Ask your doctor or pharmacist if your prescription medications and over-the-counter medications are safe for your liver. Rest, drink plenty of fluids, and eat a balanced diet to stay as healthy as possible.

There is a vaccination to prevent hepatitis B, but not hepatitis C. People at risk for exposure to hepatitis B should receive the vaccination to prevent development of the disease. If you are a healthcare worker, public safety worker, or family caregiver of a loved one with hepatitis, use routine barrier precautions when handling blood and body fluids and safe methods for handling needles and sharps.

If you are at risk for exposure to hepatitis B and C, do your best to control the risk factors that are controllable. Stop using IV street drugs (“shooting up drugs”). If you use IV street drugs, use only sterile needles once and participate in needle exchange programs.

Practice safe sex methods if you are sexually active. Using a condom may reduce the risk of hepatitis transmission. If you are with multiple partners, get checked and receive prompt treatment for sexually transmitted diseases.

Be cautious about receiving tattoos or body piercing. Ask questions to find out about the health and sterilization practices of the facility. Avoid “home” tattoo or piercing methods.

Procedures are in place to screen blood, blood product, and organ donations for hepatitis in the United States. Today, kidney dialysis centers have procedures to prevent the spread of hepatitis from their equipment. You should ask questions about preventative procedures when receiving donated blood, blood products, organs, or hemodialysis.

If you become pregnant, you should inform your doctor if you are positive for hepatitis or at risk for hepatitis. Hepatitis can be transmitted from a mother to her baby during the birth process.

Risk factors may increase your likelihood of developing hepatitis B or C. People with all of the risk factors may never develop hepatitis; however, the chance of developing the condition increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Hepatitis B and C is transmitted from the blood or body fluid of an infected person to an uninfected person. Blood or body fluid contact is possible in several situations. Risk factors for contracting Hepatitis B and C:

• Healthcare workers including doctors, nurses, dentists, family caregivers, and public safety personnel are at risk from fluid contact or needle sticks during their job duties.
• Virus transmission can occur during unsafe sex with an infected person. Using a latex condom may help reduce transmission.
• People with multiple sex partners, people with sexually transmitted diseases, people who participate in oral/anal sex, and men who have sex with men have a higher risk of contracting hepatitis B and C.
• Sharing needles, syringes, or water during injected street drug use (“shooting up”) can spread hepatitis B and C.
• People that received blood transfusions, blood products, or organ donations that were not screened for hepatitis have a risk of contracting the conditions.
• People that receive kidney dialysis, particularly those that have been on long term kidney dialysis, may be at risk for getting hepatitis B and C
• Sharing razors, nail clippers, toothbrushes, and other personnel care items can spread hepatitis B and C.
• Tattoo, body piercing, and acupuncture procedures can spread hepatitis B and C if the needles, instruments, and other supplies are contaminated.
• A mother can transmit hepatitis B and C to her baby during childbirth.

Complications of hepatitis B and hepatitis C can be serious and life threatening. People with these forms of hepatitis are at risk for developing chronic hepatitis. Chronic hepatitis can lead to cirrhosis of the liver, cancer, and liver failure. Liver failure can lead to death, and the only permanent treatment for end-stage liver disease is a liver transplant. Additionally, complications from hepatitis C can affect the skin, blood, bone marrow, connective tissues, muscles, joints, or kidneys.

Fluid loss associated with nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite can lead to dehydration. Dehydration can be severe and life threatening. Dehydration causes sleepiness, thirst, and dry mouth. It can produce a lack of tears and urine production. Older adults with dehydration may experience behavior changes and confusion. Their skin may appear to be loose. Consult your doctor if you or your loved one experiences signs of dehydration.

If you test positive for hepatitis C, ask your doctor about being tested for hepatitis B and other diseases that can be transmitted in a similar fashion. You should talk to your doctor about being tested for HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. Some people at risk for hepatitis C may also be at risk for contracting HIV.

A hernia results when the supportive muscle layer that covers the intestines is weakened or ruptures, allowing a portion of the intestine or tissue to protrude through it. A hernia may or may not cause symptoms. It may appear as a lump or bulge and cause discomfort. Surgery may be used to correct some types of hernias.

Your intestines are protected, supported, and held in place by fat, tissues, and a thin muscle layer. Fat tissue and your skin cover the muscle layer.

A hernia occurs when an area of the thin muscle layer that covers the intestines weakens and ruptures, allowing a portion of the intestines to bulge through it. In some cases, the protruding intestine may appear as a lump or a bulge beneath the skin. Heavy lifting may contribute to some types of hernias, but in other cases, there may be no identifiable cause. There are different types of hernias, including:

An inguinal hernia is the most common type of hernia to require surgery. It occurs more frequently in men than in women. It may appear in the groin area or scrotum (in men).

A femoral hernia is the most frequently occurs in women. It is the most common type of hernia to become strangulated, a life-threatening complication when the blood supply is cut off. More information about strangulated hernias appears in the “Complications” section of this article. A femoral hernia appears in the upper thigh.

An incisional hernia develops in the abdominal wall at a place where a surgical incision did not heal properly. An incisional hernia may cause discomfort, but is rarely associated with serious complications.

Some people are born with an umbilical hernia. It results from a weakness in the abdominal wall surrounding the umbilicus, where the belly button is located. Umbilical hernias are more common in boys than girls and usually do not cause symptoms until adulthood.

Some people with a hernia do not experience symptoms. A hernia may cause groin tenderness and pain. The pain may become worse when you bend or lift. You may notice a lump in your lower abdomen, groin area, or scrotum (in males). Children may have a bulge or lump without pain or tenderness. The hernia bulge may become larger when you cough, bend, lift, strain, or cry. A hernia bulge may not be noticeable in infants and children until they cry or cough.

In some cases, minor hernias are discovered during a regular physical examination. However, you should contact your doctor if you suspect that you have a hernia. Your doctor can begin to diagnose a hernia by reviewing your medical history and conducting a physical examination. Your doctor will palpate or feel for a mass. Your doctor will check and see if the mass increases in size when you cough, bend, or lift.

Most hernias can be manually pushed back into place. Some hernias that cannot be pushed back into place may pose a health risk and surgery may be recommended based on the specific condition and patient's preferences. Surgical hernia repair is an outpatient surgery that may use general or local anesthesia. Traditional surgery methods for hernia repair involve making an incision and placing the tissue or organ back in place beneath the muscle wall. The muscle tissue is repaired, sometimes with reinforcement from a mesh screen, and the incision is closed. Following your surgery, you may temporarily wear a corset to provide support. Your doctor will inform you of temporary activity restrictions.

Laparoscopic surgery may be an alternative surgery method for some people. Laparoscopic surgery uses a laparoscope to guide the surgery. A laparoscope is a thin tube with a miniature viewing instrument. The laparoscope is inserted through small incisions. Thin surgical instruments are inserted through the laparoscope during the surgery. Because laparoscopic surgery is less invasive and requires smaller incisions than traditional surgery methods, it is associated with less pain, less scarring, and quicker recovery.

You may help prevent a hernia by using proper lifting techniques and avoiding heavy lifting. It can be helpful to attain and maintain a healthy body weight. You may reduce constipation and straining during a bowel movement by eating a high-fiber diet, drinking plenty of water, exercising regularly, and going to the bathroom as soon as you are aware of the need to have a bowel movement.

Risk factors for developing a hernia include:

• People with a family history of hernias have an increased risk of developing a hernia.
• Being overweight increases the risk of a hernia.
• People with cystic fibrosis have an increased risk of developing a hernia.
• Men with undescended testicles or enlarged prostate have an increased risk for a hernia.
• Straining from chronic constipation can contribute to a hernia.
• Chronic coughing increases the risk of a hernia.

A strangulated hernia can occur if the blood supply is cut off from a trapped portion of the intestine. A strangulated hernia causes excruciating pain and serious illness. A strangulated hernia is an emergency medical condition, and you should seek immediate treatment in the emergency room of a hospital. You should contact your doctor immediately if you experience nausea, vomiting, fever, or if your hernia appears red, purple, dark, or discolored.

A hiatal hernia occurs when part of the stomach protrudes through the diaphragm, the muscle inside of the chest wall. A hiatal hernia may cause no symptoms. However, symptoms can occur from the back up of stomach acids, air, or bile into the esophagus due to the hiatal hernia. This can cause heartburn, chest pain, swallowing difficulties, and belching.

A hiatal hernia is a common condition that can be prevented. It is treated with lifestyle changes and medications. Surgery is rarely needed.

When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that rapidly moves food from your throat to your stomach. The esophagus passes through the esophageal hiatus and then connects to the stomach. The esophageal hiatus is an opening in the diaphragm. Your diaphragm is a large muscle that separates your abdomen from your chest used to expand the lungs when you take a breath.

A ring of muscles, called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES), is located at the bottom of the esophagus. The LES relaxes to allow food to enter the stomach. The LES closes tightly after the food enters. This prevents stomach contents and acids from re-entering the esophagus.

The stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. The stomach also secretes mucus to protect the lining of the stomach from the acids. The esophagus does not secrete mucus and is not protected from stomach acids.

The cause of a hiatal hernia is unknown. It appears to be associated with weak supporting tissue, poor posture, smoking, obesity, and increasing age, especially over the age of 50. Some infants are born with the condition.

There are three main types of hiatal hernia. A sliding hiatal hernia is the most common type. It occurs when the union between the esophagus and the stomach, including the LES, slides upward and through the esophageal hiatus in the diaphragm. It becomes positioned above the diaphragm and in the chest cavity. A sliding hiatal hernia results from increased pressure in the abdomen. It resolves when the pressure is relieved. A paraesophageal or fixed hiatal hernia results when a portion of the stomach moves up and remains in the chest cavity. The third type of hiatal hernia is a mixed condition including both sliding and fixed features.

A hiatal hernia in itself may cause no symptoms. Symptoms may occur when stomach acids, air, or bile back up into the esophagus causing chest pain, pressure, and burning. You may especially feel symptoms after eating, when lying down, or bending forward. You may experience belching, coughing, hiccupping, and difficulty swallowing.

In rare cases, a strangulated hernia occurs when the blood supply is cut off from the trapped portion of the stomach. A strangulated hernia causes excruciating pain and serious illness. A strangulated hernia is an emergency medical condition, and you should seek immediate treatment in the emergency room of a hospital.

A hiatal hernia may occur along with Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD). GERD results when stomach contents and stomach acids re-enter the esophagus. Normally, the LES closes tightly after food has entered the stomach. With GERD, the ring does not close tightly. Instead, it remains partially open allowing stomach contents and acids to pass back into the esophagus, damaging the lining. The main symptom of GERD is heartburn.

A hiatal hernia or GERD can cause chest pain with heartburn. The pain may feel dull and heavy in your chest. Heartburn does not involve your heart in any way. The condition was named “heartburn” because the area of discomfort is located near the heart. However, the chest pain with heartburn can be confused with the chest pain associated with a heart attack. You should call emergency services, usually 911, if you suspect you are having a heart attack. Symptoms of a heart attack include chest pain that is crushing or squeezing, or a feeling like a heavy weight is on your chest. These symptoms may occur with sweating, shortness of breath, nausea or vomiting, dizziness, lightheadedness, and pain that spreads from the chest to the neck or jaw.

Your doctor can start to diagnose hiatal hernia after reviewing your medical history and conducting a physical examination. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms, including what makes your symptoms better or worse. Your doctor may conduct tests to help confirm the diagnoses and rule out other diseases with similar symptoms. Common tests include a barium swallow and an upper gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy.

A barium swallow, also called an upper gastrointestinal (GI) series, provides a set of X-rays showing the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. Before the X-rays are taken, barium, a chalky substance, is swallowed. The barium provides an image of the upper gastrointestinal structures on the X-ray images. A barium swallow is commonly used to determine the cause of pain, swallowing problems, blood stained vomit, and unexplained weight loss. A barium swallow is an outpatient procedure that does not require sedation or anesthesia.

An upper (GI) endoscopy is a procedure that uses an endoscope to view the esophagus, stomach, and upper duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. This test is also called an esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) or a gastroscopy. An endoscope is a long thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to monitor. The endoscope allows a doctor to examine the inside of the upper gastrointestinal tract for bleeding, ulcers or erosions, tumors, and other abnormal conditions. A tissue sample or biopsy can be taken with the endoscope. It is also used to treat bleeding. An upper GI endoscopy is an outpatient procedure. You will receive a medication to relax you prior to the test.

Hiatal hernia is treated with lifestyle changes, medications, and rarely surgery. It is helpful to maintain an appropriate weight, stop smoking, improve your posture, and minimize bending or heavy lifting activities. It is helpful to stand after eating and sleep with your head and chest elevated. You should eat several small meals throughout the day instead of three large meals. You should also eat your last meal two to three hours before bedtime. Diet modifications include avoiding caffeine, chocolate, peppermint, alcohol, fried foods, and high-fat foods.

Prescription and non-prescription antacid medications may minimize the symptoms of hiatal hernia. Medications and lifestyle changes are often very effective. In rare cases, surgery is needed to fix the structural abnormalities associated with this condition.

Hiatal hernia repair surgery is also called anti-reflux surgery or fundoplication. It is used to correct a defect in the diaphragm. The surgery may be performed with open surgery or laparoscopic "keyhole" or "endoscopic" surgery. A laparoscope is a thin tube with a miniature viewing instrument. It is inserted through small incisions. Laparoscopic surgery uses smaller incisions than open surgery and is associated with less pain, less scarring, and a shorter hospital stay. Another procedure, endoluminal fundoplication uses an endoscope to place small clips on the inside of the esophagus to help prevent reflux.

There are lifestyle changes you can make to prevent hiatal hernia or reduce its symptoms. It is helpful to maintain an appropriate weight, stop smoking, improve your posture, and minimize bending or heavy lifting activities. It is helpful to stand after eating and sleep with your head and chest elevated. Eat several small meals throughout the day instead of three large meals. You should eat your last meal two to three hours before bedtime. Avoid consuming caffeine, chocolate, peppermint, alcohol, fried foods, and high-fat foods.

If you experience GERD, talk to your doctor about various treatment options.

Because the specific cause of hiatal hernia is unknown, specific risk factors are difficult to identify. However, factors that appear to contribute to the condition include obesity, poor posture, smoking, increasing age, frequently bending over, and heavy lifting. Some infants are born with the condition.

In rare cases, a strangulated hernia can occur when the blood supply is cut off from the trapped portion of the stomach. A strangulated hernia causes excruciating pain and serious illness. A strangulated hernia is an emergency medical condition and you should seek immediate treatment in the emergency room of a hospital.

A hiatal hernia may occur along with Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD). Untreated GERD can lead to damage of esophagus and bleeding. People with GERD have an increased risk for developing esophageal cancer. If you experience GERD, you should talk to your doctor about a screening schedule for cancer.

Indigestion is a common condition and affects people of all ages. Indigestion can occur for many reasons. Cigarette smoking and the consumption of certain foods, medications, and alcohol can contribute to indigestion. Indigestion can be a symptom of stress. Some cases of indigestion resolve without treatment. Indigestion may be relieved with medications, lifestyle changes, and by treating any underlying medical conditions.

Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach.

Your stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. Your stomach processes the food you eat into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. The liquid solidifies as it moves through the large intestine, forming a stool. The stool is eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

Indigestion is a common problem. It occurs for many reasons. Eating too fast, eating too much, or eating certain foods can cause indigestion. Spicy foods, high-fat or high-fiber foods, caffeine, and carbonated beverages can lead to indigestion. Alcohol consumption and cigarette smoking can also cause indigestion. Indigestion can also be caused by bacteria called H. pylori which can cause stomach ulcers as well.

Emotional trauma, anxiety, and depression can contribute to indigestion. It can also be caused by some medications including antibiotics, steroids, thyroid medications, aspirin, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). In some cases, indigestion is a symptom of an underlying medical condition including symptomatic ulcers, nonulcer dyspepsia, stomach infection, GERD, irritable bowel disease, inflammatory bowel disease, pregnancy, thyroid disease, and inflammation of the stomach, gallbladder, or pancreas.

Indigestion is the sensation of upper abdominal discomfort. You may experience pain or a burning feeling in your stomach or upper abdomen. You may feel full or bloated. Indigestion can cause belching, gas, vomiting, nausea, and stomach growling.

Your doctor can start to diagnose indigestion after reviewing your medical history and conducting a physical examination. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms and risk factors. Your doctor may order blood tests and imaging tests to help confirm the diagnosis and rule out other conditions with similar symptoms. Imaging tests may include X-rays, an abdominal ultrasound, a barium swallow, and an upper gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy.

X-rays may be taken of your stomach or small intestine. X-rays are painless procedures that simply require that you remain motionless while a picture is taken. An abdominal ultrasound is used to monitor blood flow and provide images of your internal organs. An ultrasound image is received from a device that is gently placed and moved over your skin.

An Upper Gastrointestinal (GI) Series or Barium Swallow provides a set of X-rays showing the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. Before the X-rays are taken, barium, a chalky substance, is swallowed. The barium provides an image of the upper gastrointestinal structures on the X-ray images. A barium swallow is commonly used to determine the cause of abdominal pain, swallowing problems, blood stained vomit, and/or unexplained weight loss. A barium swallow is an outpatient procedure that does not require sedation or anesthesia.

An Upper Gastrointestinal (GI) Endoscopy is a procedure that uses an endoscope to view the esophagus, stomach, and upper duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. This test is also called an Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) or a Gastroscopy. An endoscope is a long thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to monitor. The endoscope allows a doctor to examine the inside of the upper gastrointestinal tract for bleeding, tumors, ulcers, and other abnormal conditions. A tissue sample or biopsy can be taken with the endoscope. It is also used to treat bleeding. An upper GI endoscopy is an outpatient procedure. You will receive a medication to relax you prior to the test.

Some cases of indigestion may go away without formal treatment. Other cases of indigestion may be relieved with medications. If indigestion is the symptom of an underlying medical condition, the medical condition should be treated.

Surgery may be necessary to treat some types of advanced conditions including GERD, ulcers, inflammatory bowel disease, and pancreatic or gallbladder conditions. Laparoscopic surgeries are used when possible. Laparoscopic surgery methods are minimally invasive procedures that are associated with a quicker recovery time.

It is important to have the medical conditions that cause your indigestion treated. Avoiding the triggers that cause it for you may prevent indigestion. Talk to your doctor about your medications that cause indigestion. Your doctor may be able to substitute another medication that does not.

You may need to forgo certain foods, alcohol, or smoking. It can be helpful to change the way you eat, such as eating slower and eating small meals. It can also be helpful to avoid lying down or exercising right after a meal.

Indigestion is very common and experienced by people of ages. Cigarette smoking and consuming certain foods, medications, and alcohol can increase your risk of having indigestion. Stress and certain medical conditions can also increase your risk.

Because indigestion can be a symptom of a more serious medical condition, you should call your doctor if you experience blood in your vomit or stools, black tarry stools, weight loss, loss of appetite, and severe abdominal pain or discomfort.

Symptoms of indigestion may be similar to those caused by a heart attack. You should call Emergency Medical Services in your area, usually 911, immediately if you suspect you are having a heart attack. Symptoms of a heart attack may include symptoms of indigestion plus shortness of breath, sweating, or pain that spreads to your jaw, neck, or arm.

Crohn’s disease is a chronic autoimmune inflammatory bowel disease. It is believed to result when the immune system, which usually fights diseases, attacks the cells in the GI tract. When the cells in the digestive system are attacked, the cell lining becomes swollen and painful. Crohn’s disease can cause changes in bowel movement patterns, pain, and numerous other medical complications.

The exact cause of Crohn’s disease is unknown. It cannot be prevented at this time. Treatment for Crohn’s disease includes medication and potentially surgery. Although Crohn’s disease is a life long condition, medical treatment and monitoring can help people live a good quality of life.

After you swallow food, it moves through your esophagus and into your stomach. Chemicals in your stomach break down the food into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine.

The small intestine is a tube that is about 20-22 feet long and 1 ½ to 2 inches around. The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. It is a short C-shaped structure that extends off of the stomach. The jejunum and the ileum are the middle and final sections of the small intestine.

Your small intestine breaks down the liquid from your stomach even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel or colon, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The lower GI tract is divided into sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus.The appendix is located on the cecum, but it does not serve a purpose in the digestive process.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The large intestine moves the stool into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before being traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your digestive tract. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

The cause of Crohn’s disease is unknown. It appears that genetics may play a role. Researchers believe that other factors including diet, the environment, and blood vessel abnormalities, may contribute to the disease. Scientists also suspect that a virus or bacteria may cause the immune system to overreact. Researchers do know that Crohn’s disease runs in families and that people with Crohn’s disease have an abnormal autoimmune reaction that harms the bowels.

Intestinal inflammation most frequently occurs at the end of the ileum and the beginning of the cecum, where the small and large intestine join. It is common in the area around the anus. An ulcer or sore may develop where the inflammation is most severe. The ulcers may become quite large and are characteristically separated by thin areas of healthy tissue.

Malabsorption can be a consequence of damage to the intestinal wall. This means that nutrients, water, and fats from the food you eat may not be able to be absorbed by your body. Malabsorption can lead to malnutrition, nutrition deficiencies, dehydration, kidney stones, and gallstones.

Intestinal inflammation can cause the walls of the intestines to thicken. The thickened wall can cause the space in the intestinal passage to narrow. This can impede or block the movement of digested food. Bowel obstruction can be permanent and require medical or surgical treatment.

Intestinal inflammation can spread all of the way through the intestinal wall. The inflammation can adhere to nearby organs and structures, including the bladder and vagina. The adhesions can lead to serious problems if the contents of the bowel enter other sites and cause infection.

Crohn’s disease can affect the skin around the anus. It can cause tiny cracks in the tissues called anal fissures. Sores, called fistulas, may spread and lead to adhesions between the intestines and the skin. Additionally, abscesses, pockets of dead tissue may develop. These skin conditions can be quite painful and annoying.

Crohn’s disease can cause inflammatory conditions in other parts of the body. It can affect the joints, mouth, eyes, liver, and bile ducts. Crohn’s disease can affect a child’s development. A child with Crohn’s disease may experience delayed development and stunted growth.

Crohn’s disease is a chronic condition. Medications tend to become less effective over time. Many people with Crohn’s disease eventually require surgery. Further, complications associated with Crohn’s disease can be fatal. Cancer in the digestive tract is the leading cause of death for people with Crohn’s disease.

Crohn’s disease is a slowly progressing life long condition. Symptoms of Crohn’s disease may come and go over time. There is no way to predict when inflammation may occur and how long it will last. Most people feel good in between episodes of Crohn’s disease.

When symptoms occur, you may experience diarrhea. Your diarrhea may contain mucus, blood, or pus. At times you may be incontinent; you may have a bowel movement when you do not intend to. You may experience steady or cramping pain in your abdomen, the area around your belly button, or in the right lower area of your abdomen. Your pain may temporarily subside after a bowel movement.

You may experience constipation. Constipation may occur with bowel obstruction. Bowel movements may be painful. You may have blood in your stools. Additionally, your stools may have a very bad odor.

You may feel bloated after eating a meal. Your stomach may sound noisy; it may gurgle or make other noises. You may lose your appetite and consequently lose weight. A fistula from the intestinal tract can cause infection in other parts of the body. You may experience a bladder infection. Females may develop a vaginal infection.

Some people develop medical conditions associated with Crohn’s disease that affect other parts of the body. Such areas include the skin, eyes, joints, blood, mouth, liver, and bile ducts. Crohn’s disease can be associated with skin rashes and eye inflammation. You may develop joint disease, such as arthritis. Crohn’s disease can lead to blood clots called deep vein thrombosis. The gums in your mouth may become swollen. Additionally, Crohn’s disease can cause liver inflammation, gallstones, and kidney stones.

Your doctor can start to diagnose Crohn’s disease after reviewing your medical history and conducting a physical examination. Tell your doctor about your symptoms, risk factors, family history, diet, and lifestyle. Your doctor may conduct blood to help diagnose Crohn’s disease, rule out other conditions with similar symptoms, detect inflammation, and check for malnutrition. Your doctor may test a stool sample as well. In some cases, imaging tests may help to identify Crohn’s disease. Common imaging tests include an upper gastrointestinal (GI) series, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), barium enema, or endoscopy such as colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy.

An upper gastrointestinal series or barium swallow provides a set of X-rays showing the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. Before the X-rays are taken, barium, a chalky substance, is swallowed. The barium provides an image of the upper gastrointestinal structures on the X-ray images. A barium swallow is commonly used to determine the cause of pain, swallowing problems, blood stained vomit, and unexplained weight loss. A barium swallow is an outpatient procedure that does not require sedation or anesthesia.

A lower gastrointestinal series or barium enema test provides a series of X-ray images of the large intestine. A barium enema is commonly used to screen for colon cancer and bowel diseases. Prior to taking X-rays, barium, a chalky substance, and air are used to fill and expand the colon. The barium reveals the bowel’s shape and position on the X-ray images. A barium enema is an outpatient procedure that is performed at a doctor’s office or a hospital’s radiology department.

An upper gastrointestinal intestinal (GI) endoscopy is a procedure that uses an endoscope to view the esophagus, stomach, and upper duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. This test is also called an esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) or a gastroscopy. An endoscope is a long thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to monitor. The endoscope allows a doctor to examine the inside of the upper gastrointestinal tract for bleeding, inflammation, tumors, polyps, and other abnormal conditions. A tissue sample or biopsy can be taken with the endoscope. It is also used to treat bleeding. An upper GI endoscopy is an outpatient procedure. You will receive a medication to relax you prior to the test.

An ERCP uses an endoscope to view the pancreas and nearby structures for people with Crohn’s disease in their pancreas or bile ducts. An endoscope is a thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument at the end of it. After you are sedated, the tube is passed through your mouth and into your small intestine. Dye may be administered to enhance viewing. In some cases, an endoscope is used to remove gallstones or to take tissue samples.

A colonoscopy is a procedure that uses a colonscope to view the inside lining of the entire colon. A colonscope is a long thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to a monitor. The colonscope allows a doctor to examine the inside of your colon for cancer, polyps, and other medical diseases. A tissue sample or biopsy can be taken with the colonscope. You will receive medication to relax you prior to and during the test.

A flexible sigmoidoscopy is a procedure that uses a sigmoidscope to view the inside lining of the rectum and lower section of the colon. A sigmoidscope is a thin tube that is about twenty inches long. It has a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to an eyepiece or a monitor. The sigmoidscope allows a doctor to examine the inside of the rectum and lower colon for cancer, polyps, and other medical conditions. A tissue sample or biopsy may be taken with the sigmoidscope. A flexible sigmoidoscopy is a procedure that does not require anesthesia or sedation.

In some cases, a computed tomography (CT) scan, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, or an ultrasound may be used to identify complications outside of the intestine and examine other organs. These imaging tests are painless procedures. The CT and MRI scans simply require that you remain motionless while pictures are taken. For ultrasound, a technician will gently move a small device on your abdomen. The device sends images to a monitor for review.

A major goal of Crohn’s disease treatment is to reduce inflammation to reduce symptoms, prevent complications, and maintain adequate nutrition. Your doctor may prescribe anti-inflammatory, antibiotic, antidiarrheal, or immunosuppressant medication. If medications do not help or if you experience intestinal blockage, you may need surgery. Surgery may also be used to treat abscesses and fistulas.

The most common surgery for Crohn’s disease removes the diseased section of the intestine. The surgery can improve symptoms of Crohn’s disease, but it does not cure it. Crohn’s disease commonly comes back after surgery, frequently at the site where the incision is made.

In some cases, a stoma, an opening in the abdomen may need to be surgically created to remove stools. The procedure is called an ostomy. An ostomy is necessary if stools can no longer exit the body through the rectum and anus. The surgery involves attaching the intestine to the stoma. A collection bag is worn on the outside of the stoma. The bag requires regular emptying and cleaning. The term for the ostomy depends on which part of the intestine is attached to the stoma, for instance a colostomy or ileostomy. People that have a large section of their intestine removed may need to receive intravenous (IV) nutrition for the rest of their lives.

Medical complications associated with Crohn’s disease need to be treated as well. You will need to make and keep regular appointments with your doctor to monitor your condition. Although Crohn’s disease is a life long condition, treatment and monitoring can help people live a good quality of life.

The experience of Crohn’s disease and Crohn’s disease treatments can be an emotional process for people with the condition and their loved ones. It is important that you receive emotional support from a positive source. Some people find comfort in their family, friends, co-workers, and faith. Support groups are another good option. They can be a source of information and support from people who understand what you are experiencing. Ask your doctor about support group locations in your area.

The exact cause of Crohn’s disease is unknown. At this time, there is no way to prevent Crohn’s disease. You should discuss your risk factors, family history of Crohn’s disease, symptoms, and concerns with your doctor. You should make and keep all of the appointments with your doctor. Although Crohn’s disease is a life long condition, consistent treatment and monitoring can help you live a good quality of life.

Risk factors may increase your likelihood of developing Crohn’s disease. People with all of the risk factors may never develop Crohn’s disease; however, the chance of developing the condition increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

The United States has the highest incidence of Crohn’s disease in the world. Crohn’s disease occurs most frequently in Caucasians. In the United States, Europe, and South Africa, Crohn’s disease is more common among people with European-Jewish ancestry. Most cases of Crohn’s disease are diagnosed in adolescence and early adulthood; however, the condition can develop at any age.

Crohn’s disease risk factors:

• Slightly more men than women get Crohn’s disease.
• Crohn’s disease appears to have an inherited genetic trait. If your family members have Crohn’s disease your risk for developing the condition is increased.
• Smoking cigarettes increases the risk of developing Crohn’s disease or can worsen the presentation of the disease.

Crohn’s disease can cause numerous and variable complications involving other organ systems and parts of the body. Crohn’s disease is a chronic condition. Medications tend to become less effective over time. Many people with Crohn’s disease eventually require surgery. Further, complications associated with Crohn’s disease can be fatal. Cancer in the digestive tract is the leading cause of death for people with Crohn’s disease.

Ulcerative colitis is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). It causes inflammatory damage in the lining of the rectum and colon. The primary symptoms of ulcerative colitis include abdominal pain, rectal bleeding, and diarrhea. The cause of ulcerative colitis is unknown. It is a chronic condition, and repeated episodes can be expected. Ulcerative colitis is treated with medications and/or surgery.

Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. As water from the waste product is absorbed, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool or feces. It is eventually eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

After you swallow food, it moves through your esophagus and into your stomach. Chemicals in your stomach break down the food into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. Your small intestine breaks down the liquid even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients from the food you ate. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel or colon, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The lower GI tract is divided into sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus.The appendix is located on the cecum, but it does not serve a purpose in the digestive process.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The large intestine moves the stool into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before being traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your digestive tract. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

Ulcerative colitis is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). It causes inflammatory damage to the lining of the intestinal tissue. Ulcerative colitis originates in the rectum but can involve the entire large intestine. It usually develops in the sigmoid colon as well. Ulcerative colitis that predominantly affects the rectum is called proctitis. Extensive colitis or pancolitis refers to ulcerative colitis that extends throughout the entire colon. Generally, severity is associated with the amount of the colon that is affected.

The cause of ulcerative colitis is unknown. Researchers suspect that in select people, the immune system overreacts to normal bacteria in the intestine and causes inflammation. Further, researchers suspect that bacterial or viral diseases may contribute to the development of ulcerative colitis. It appears that the cause may involve an inherited genetic factor. In particular, it occurs more commonly in people of Jewish ancestry. Ulcerative colitis is more common in people between the ages of 15 and 25, and between the ages of 55 and 65, although it may occur at any age.

Ulcerative colitis is a chronic condition, and repeated episodes may be expected. Symptoms may appear gradually or suddenly. The primary symptoms of ulcerative colitis include diarrhea, rectal bleeding, and abdominal pain. Your pain may go away after a bowel movement. There may be blood and mucus in your diarrhea. In severe cases, some people have very frequent diarrhea.

You may experience tenesmus. Tenesmus is a condition that causes persistent nonproductive spasms of the rectum and bladder. It can cause you to feel like you need to urinate or have a bowel movement. You may also develop a fever, lose weight, and lose your appetite. Further, nausea, joint pain, and skin rashes may also occur.

Repeated episodes of ulcerative colitis can lead to the development of scar tissue and a thickened lining of the colon and rectum. Eventually tissue may die or become infected. Further, people with ulcerative colitis have an increased risk of colon cancer. The risk for colon cancer increases with each decade that the ulcerative colitis is present.

Your doctor can start to diagnose ulcerative colitis after reviewing your medical history and by conducting a physical examination. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms and risk factors. Your doctor may order blood tests, stool tests, and imaging tests to help confirm the diagnosis and rule out other conditions with similar symptoms. Imaging tests may include a colonoscopy and barium enema. Ulcerative colitis can be confirmed with a tissue sample biopsy.

A colonoscopy is a procedure that uses a colonscope to view the inside lining of the entire colon. A colonscope is a long thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to a monitor. The colonscope allows a doctor to examine the inside of your colon for cancer, polyps, and disease. A tissue sample or biopsy can be taken with the colonscope. You will receive medication to relax you prior to the test. The biopsy is a painless procedure.

A Lower Gastrointestinal (GI) Series or Barium Enema test provides a series of X-ray images of the large intestine. A barium enema is commonly used to screen for colon cancer and bowel diseases. Prior to taking X-rays, barium, a chalky substance, and air are used to fill and expand the colon. The barium reveals the bowel’s shape and position on the X-ray images. A barium enema is a procedure that is performed at a doctor’s office or a hospital’s radiology department.

The treatment goals for ulcerative colitis are aimed at controlling current episodes, preventing future episodes, reducing inflammation, and healing the colon. There are several medication options your doctor may offer. Mild ulcerative colitis may be controlled with medications or simply changes to your diet. Moderate to severe cases may require prescription medications or a hospital stay. In some unresponsive cases, surgery may be offered to remove the colon. The procedure eliminates the ulcerative colitis and chance of developing colon cancer. If the colon is removed, an opening is created in the abdomen for the collection of fecal matter or the small intestine is connected to the anus to achieve normal bowel functioning.

The experience of ulcerative colitis can be an emotional process for people with the condition and their loved ones. It is important that you receive support from a positive source. Some people find comfort in their family, friends, co-workers, and church. Support groups are another good option. They can be a good source of information and support from people who understand what you are experiencing. Ask your doctor for support group locations in your area.

Because the cause of ulcerative colitis is unknown, prevention is also unknown. However, because ulcerative colitis can lead to colon cancer, people with the condition should be screened for colon cancer on a regular basis as determined by their physician.

Because the cause of ulcerative colitis is unknown, specific risk factors are difficult to identify. It appears that ulcerative colitis may have an inherited component in select families. It appears to occur more frequently in people of Jewish ancestry and less commonly in African-Americans. Your should tell your doctor about your possible risk factors and discuss your concerns.

There are several complications associated with ulcerative colitis. Repeated episodes of ulcerative colitis can lead to the development of scar tissue and a thickened lining of the colon and rectum. Eventually tissue may die or become infected. In severe cases, inflammation and thickening causes the colon wall to expand to beyond its normal size. This condition is called toxic megacolon and requires emergency medical treatment. Other complications associated with ulcerative colitis include joint pain, eye lesions, mouth ulcers, skin rashes, and liver disease.

People with ulcerative colitis have an increased risk of colon cancer. The risk for colon cancer increases with each decade the ulcerative colitis is present. You should establish regular screening for colon cancer.

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a very common gastrointestinal (GI) disorder. It is also referred to as nervous indigestion, spastic colon, and functional bowel disease. IBS is defined by the symptoms of abdominal pain and diarrhea or constipation for a prolonged period of time.

The cause of IBS is unknown. It is more common in women and appears to be associated with many factors including emotional stress. For some people, IBS is a chronic life-long condition. There is no cure for IBS. However, symptoms may be managed with lifestyle changes, medications, and dietary alterations.

Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. As water from the waste product is absorbed, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool or feces. It is eventually eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

After you swallow food, it moves through your esophagus and into your stomach. Chemicals in your stomach break down the food into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. Your small intestine breaks down the liquid even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients from the food you ate. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel or colon, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The lower GI tract is divided into sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus.The appendix is located on the cecum, but it does not serve a purpose in the digestive process.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The large intestine moves the stool through the large intestine into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your digestive tract. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

The cause of IBS is unknown. It appears that abnormal muscle movement patterns in the GI tract and changes in the communication system between the brain and the GI tract may lead to the condition. Researchers suspect IBS may be triggered by dietary factors including a low-fiber diet, high-fat foods, carbonated drinks, fructose, sorbitol, and dairy products. It also appears that certain medications, alcohol, smoking, and gastroenteritis may lead to IBS.

IBS is more common in women. Doctors suspect that a hormonal component may trigger IBS. Some women report IBS at the time of menstruation. Many people that experience emotional stress, trauma, sexual assault, or intimate violence develop IBS.

IBS most frequently occurs between adolescence and young adulthood, although it may occur at any age. IBS is not a contagious or inherited condition. It does not cause cancer.

IBS causes either frequent diarrhea or constipation for a prolonged period of time. Your abdomen may feel tender or painful. The pain may be relieved following a bowel movement. You may pass mucus with your stool and your stools may look different than they usually do. Your stomach may feel full, bloated, or distended.

Your doctor can diagnose IBS by reviewing your medical history and conducting a physical examination. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms, how long you have experienced the symptoms, and possible contributing factors. There is no single test to identify IBS. A diagnosis of IBS is made by exclusion, meaning ruling out other diseases or conditions with similar symptoms first. A diagnosis of IBS generally requires symptom duration of 12 weeks or more.

Your doctor may order tests to help determine the diagnosis. Tests may include blood tests, stool tests, and imaging studies. Imaging studies commonly include a sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy.

A flexible sigmoidoscopy is used to view the rectum and part of the colon for cancer or polyps. A sigmoidscope is a thin tube with a light and viewing instrument. It is about two feet long. The sigmoidscope is placed in the colon, through the anus. This test can be uncomfortable, but should not be painful.

A colonoscopy is used to view the entire colon. A colonscope is similar to a sigmoidscope, but it is much longer. A colonscope allows a doctor to examine the colon for cancer or polyps. A tissue sample or biopsy can be taken with the colonscope. A colonoscopy can be uncomfortable, and you will receive medication to relax you prior to and during the test.

There is no cure for IBS. Treatment is aimed at relieving symptoms and minimizing flare-ups. Treatments are different for everyone, depending on their triggers for IBS. Treatment may include dietary changes, lifestyle changes, counseling, and medications.

Dietary changes may include increasing your fiber intake and avoiding foods that irritate your digestive system. It can be helpful to avoid cigarette smoking, caffeine products, and alcohol. Emotional stress or mental health issues can be addressed with counseling, medications, or both. Regular exercise can also help. Your doctor may recommend over-the-counter medication or prescription medication to relieve stomach spasms and diarrhea.

Because the cause of IBS is unknown, specific prevention measures are unknown. It appears that some people may reduce their symptoms by making lifestyle and dietary changes. It is important to attend your doctor appointments so that you may both work on recognizing what triggers your symptoms to best establish a treatment plan for you.

Because the cause of IBS is unknown, risk factors cannot be readily identified. However, it appears that several factors may contribute to IBS.

Possible contributing factors for IBS:

• IBS occurs more frequently in women than men.
• People in their teens through early adulthood are more likely to develop IBS.
• People in their teens through early adulthood are more likely to develop IBS.
• It is suspected that dietary factors may play a role in the development of IBS including a low-fiber diet, high-fat diet, dairy products, sorbital, fructose, and carbonated beverages.
• It appears that smoking and consuming alcohol may lead to IBS.
• Certain medications including select antidepressants, antibiotics, and medications made with sorbitol may be associated with IBS.
• There may be a link between experiencing gastroenteritis (infectious stomach flu, traveler’s diarrhea, or food poisoning) and IBS.

IBS can cause loss of appetite, dehydration, or malnutrition because of food aversion. Diarrhea can occur frequently and abruptly. This may disrupt your personal lifestyle and interfere with your work or leisure activities.

The experience of IBS can be frustrating and an emotional process for some people and their loved ones. It is important that you receive support from a positive source. Some people find comfort in their family, friends, co-workers, and faith. Support groups for people with digestive conditions are another good option. They can be a good source of information and support from people who understand what you are experiencing. Ask your doctor for support group locations in your area.

Laparoscopic appendectomy is an advanced minimally invasive surgical procedure that is used to remove the appendix in people with appendicitis. Your appendix is a small growth that extends off your large intestine. Although the appendix has no known purpose, it can become inflamed, infected, or rupture. Immediate surgery is necessary to remove the appendix to prevent infection and severe complications. Laparoscopic appendectomy is the preferred surgical method because it uses only small incisions and is associated with a quick recovery time and few post-operative complications.

Traditional open surgical procedures for appendicitis require a larger incision to remove the appendix and explore the area. Laparoscopic appendectomy is less invasive because it uses a laparoscope. A laparoscope is a thin tube with a light and viewing instrument. The laparoscope is inserted through a small incision and sends images to a monitor for viewing. The images are used to guide the surgery. Thin surgical instruments are inserted through a hollow tube in the laparoscope to remove the appendix. Although several small incisions may be necessary to reposition the laparoscope during the procedure, the body does not need to be “opened,” as with traditional surgery methods. Laparoscopic appendectomy results in less pain, few complications, and little scarring. It requires a shorter hospital stay and has a faster recovery time than traditional open surgery methods.

Laparoscopic appendectomy may not be appropriate for all people. People with heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, obesity, prior abdominal surgery, and certain diseases may not be good candidates for this procedure. Your doctor will determine which surgical procedure is most appropriate for you.

Laparoscopic appendectomy is a short surgery, usually lasting only about 15-30 minutes. General anesthesia is used. Your surgeon will make several small incisions to insert the laparoscope and remove your appendix.

People typically spend about 24 to 36 hours in the hospital following the surgery. Because small incisions are used, you can expect less bleeding, pain, and scarring. Laparoscopic appendectomy is associated with a lower risk of infection and fewer complications than traditional open surgical methods. It also has a shorter recovery time.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is a minimally invasive surgical procedure used to treat gallbladder disease. Your gallbladder is a small organ located in your right upper abdomen. Your gallbladder works with your liver and pancreas to produce bile and digestive enzymes to help break down the food that you eat for digestion. Gallbladder disease is caused by conditions that slow or block the flow of bile from the gallbladder. Bile is a fluid that breaks down the fat in foods. Inflammation or gallstones can block the bile flow. Gallstones are solid particles that result from an imbalance of bile components. When bile accumulates, the gallbladder can become painful and inflamed. The most common treatment for significant disease is surgical removal of the gallbladder.

Traditional open surgical methods use a large incision to allow a surgeon to access the gallbladder and remove it. Traditional surgery requires several days in the hospital and a longer time for recovery. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy has several advantages over traditional open surgical methods. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy uses a small-lighted camera, a laparoscope, to guide the surgery. Thin surgical instruments are passed through small incisions. The smaller incisions shorten the recovery time. It is feasible to have the surgery in the morning and return home on the same day or spend just one night in the hospital.

General anesthesia is used for laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Your surgeon will make several small incisions in your abdomen near your belly button to insert the laparoscope and remove your gallbladder. People are usually discharged from the hospital about 24 hours after their procedure.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is associated with a lower risk of infection and other complications than traditional surgery methods. You can also expect a shorter recovery time. Your doctor will temporarily restrict your activities, but you should be able to resume your regular routine in one to two weeks.

Laparoscopic colon resection surgery is an advanced minimally invasive procedure to remove a diseased section of the colon. Your colon is part of your digestive system. The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the digested material that comes from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool or feces. The stool moves through the large intestine and passes out of your body when you have a bowel movement. The colon may become diseased because of a variety of conditions including cancer, polyps, diverticulitis, and ulcerative colitis.

Historically, traditional open surgery was the only surgical option for people with colon disease. The traditional open surgery method is invasive and requires a large incision. It is associated with significant pain following surgery, a relatively lengthy hospital stay, and about six weeks for recovery.

Laparoscopic colon resection surgery is an alternative to open traditional surgery methods for some people.

Laparoscopic colon resection surgery is performed with a laparoscope. A laparoscope is a thin viewing instrument with a miniature camera at the end. The laparoscope is inserted through small incisions. The camera transmits images to a video screen, which a surgeon uses to guide the surgery. Thin surgical instruments are passed through the small incisions to perform the procedure. Because only small incisions are necessary for laparoscopic colon resection surgery, this procedure is associated with less pain, less bleeding, fewer complications, fewer days spent in the hospital, and a quicker recovery time than traditional colon resection surgery. Laparoscopic colon resection is also associated with an earlier resumption of normal bowel movements.

General anesthesia is used for laparoscopic colon resection surgery, so you will not be awake for the procedure. Your surgeon will make several small incisions in your abdomen. Carbon dioxide gas will be inserted into your abdomen through an incision to inflate the area and increase the workspace and view for your surgeon. Your surgeon will use the laparoscope and thin surgical instruments to remove the diseased section of your colon. The healthy segments of the colon are reattached in a procedure called an end-to-end anastomosis. When the surgery is complete, the carbon dioxide gas is removed, and the incisions are closed with stitches and bandaged.

You can expect to stay in the hospital about two to four days following your procedure. With laparoscopic surgery, you can expect less pain, less scarring, and the return of normal bowel function earlier than with traditional open surgery methods. Most people are able to return to work in about two to three weeks.

Laparoscopic gastric bypass surgery is a procedure that is used to help people with significant obesity lose weight. The surgery reduces the size of the stomach and reroutes the small intestine. As a result, people feel full sooner and eat less. The new route of the small intestine decreases the amount of calories that are absorbed during the digestive process. Following laparoscopic gastric bypass surgery, most people lose about 10 pounds per month. However, you must strictly adhere to nutrition and exercise guidelines to avoid complications.

The negative effects of obesity are well documented. Obesity is an epidemic among Americans and can lead to heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, and other health complications. Gastric bypass surgery is for people that are severely obese and have not been successful with dieting and exercise to lose weight. Laparoscopic gastric bypass surgery is an alternative to open traditional surgery methods.

Laparoscopic gastric bypass surgery is performed with a laparoscope. A laparoscope is a thin viewing instrument with a miniature camera at the end. The laparoscope is inserted through small incisions. The camera transmits images to a video screen, which a surgeon uses to guide the surgery. Thin surgical instruments are passed through the incisions to perform the procedure. Because only small incisions are necessary for laparoscopic gastric bypass surgery, this procedure is associated with less pain, less bleeding, fewer complications, and a quicker recovery than traditional gastric bypass surgical methods. Laparoscopic gastric bypass surgery is also associated with a decreased need for follow-up surgeries.

Not everyone is a candidate for laparoscopic gastric bypass surgery. The procedure is best suited for people that weigh less than 350 lbs. Your doctor can determine which surgical method is best for you. There are risks with any method of gastric bypass surgery, and your doctor will review them with you.

You will receive a thorough physical and mental health examination prior to surgery. You must be ready to commit to careful nutritional intake and exercise following surgery. You will work with a nutritionist to learn about healthy eating before and after your procedure.

Laparoscopic gastric bypass surgery is performed with general anesthesia. Your surgeon will make several small incisions to insert and reposition the laparoscope during your procedure. The surgery consists of a few steps. First, your surgeon will make your stomach smaller by dividing it with surgical staples. Your new stomach “the pouch” will only hold small amounts of food.

The second step entails rerouting the small intestine. Normally, the first part of the small intestine is connected to the bottom of the stomach and functions to absorb calories and nutrients. With surgery, the first part of the small intestine is bypassed so that fewer calories are absorbed to increase weight reduction. Instead, the new pouch is connected to the second part of the small intestine, called a Roux limb. Finally, the Roux limb is attached to the end of the first part of the small intestine so that digestive juices from the bottom of the stomach can aid in digestion.

You will need to stay in the hospital a few days following your surgery. Because laparoscopic gastric bypass surgery is minimally invasive, you can expect less pain, less bleeding, fewer complications, and a quicker recovery time than with traditional gastric bypass surgery methods. The laparoscopic procedure will allow you to get out of bed and begin walking earlier.

It is very important to follow your doctor’s instructions carefully following your laparoscopic gastric bypass procedure. You will need to eat liquid or pureed food for several weeks and gradually advance to eating solid foods. Initially, your new pouch will only hold about a tablespoon of food but will expand to contain about a cup of food. You should consume liquids and solid food separately and avoid food that is high in fat or carbohydrates. You should not drink alcohol.

You can resume exercising about six weeks after your procedure. You will need to attend all of your follow-up visits. Your doctor and nutritionist will monitor your weight loss progress. It can be helpful to attend a support group. Most people attain significant weight loss after about 1 ½ to 2 years.

Laparoscopic splenectomy is a minimally invasive surgical procedure that is used to remove a diseased or enlarged spleen. Your spleen is located to the left of your stomach. The spleen acts as a filter to help fight infections and maintain the amount of blood in your body by destroying old blood cells. Certain conditions can cause the spleen to become enlarged or damaged, including, cysts, blood disorders, infection, autoimmune diseases, leukemia, or lymphoma. You can live without a spleen, and your liver will eventually take over some of its functions.

In the past, traditional open surgery methods were the only option for removing the spleen. This method was an invasive procedure and required a large incision. An open splenectomy requires an in-patient stay of up to about a week and up to six weeks for a full recovery. Laparoscopic splenectomy is an alternative to open traditional surgery for some people.

Laparoscopic splenectomy is performed with a laparoscope. A laparoscope is a thin viewing instrument with a miniature camera at the end. The laparoscope is inserted through small incisions. The camera transmits images to a video screen, which a surgeon uses to guide the surgery. Thin surgical instruments are passed through the incisions to perform the procedure. Because only small incisions are necessary for laparoscopic splenectomy, this procedure is associated with less pain, less bleeding, fewer complications, a shorter hospital stay, and a quicker recovery time than with traditional open splenectomy methods.

General anesthesia is used for laparoscopic splenectomy. Your surgeon will make several small incisions in your abdomen. Carbon dioxide gas will be inserted into your abdomen through an incision to inflate the area and increase the workspace and view for your surgeon. Your surgeon will use the laparoscope and thin surgical instruments to place the spleen into a surgical bag prior to removal. When the splenectomy is completed, the carbon dioxide gas is removed, and the incisions are closed with stitches and bandaged.

You can expect to spend a few days in the hospital following your surgery. You may experience some temporary shoulder discomfort or pain from the expansion of your abdomen with the carbon dioxide gas. With laparoscopic surgery, you can expect less pain, less scarring, and a return to your regular activities earlier than with traditional open surgery methods. Again, you can live without a spleen, and your liver will eventually take over some of its functions. Your doctor will carefully monitor you during follow-up appointments.

Primary liver cancer originates in the cells of the liver. Metastasized liver cancer occurs when cancer from other locations in the body spreads to the liver. Liver cancer that is identified and treated early is associated with the best outcomes. In some cases, surgery or a liver transplant may cure liver cancer. When a cure is not possible, radiation therapy may be used to relieve the symptoms of liver cancer and improve the quality of life.

Your liver is one of the largest organs in your body, second only to your skin. Your liver is located in your right upper abdomen and is protected by your ribcage. Your liver performs over 100 functions—most of them are related to keeping you alive and healthy.

Your liver is divided into right and left lobes. It is further divided into smaller lobes called the caudate and quadrate lobes. The right lobe is the largest part of your liver.

About 25% of your total blood volume passes through your liver each minute. Your liver receives blood from two sources, the portal vein and the hepatic artery. Additionally, blood from your spleen drains into the splenic vein and connects with the portal vein. Most of the blood received by your liver is from the portal vein. Blood from the portal vein travels from your gastrointestinal tract before reaching your liver. This way, your liver is the first to receive substances from digested food.

Your liver receives toxins, alcohol, nutrients, germs, and medications from your digestive tract. As a result, one function of the liver is to metabolize toxins, alcohol, nutrients, and medications. The hepatic artery is the second source of blood supply to the liver. Blood delivered through the hepatic artery comes directly from the heart. It is higher in oxygen than blood from the portal vein.

Once inside the liver, blood from the portal vein and the hepatic artery mix. The blood flows through tiny blood vessels in the liver called sinusoids. Components in the blood are delivered by the sinusoids to the hepatocytes. Hepatocytes are the major cell type in the liver. The hepatocytes metabolize nutrients, toxins, and drugs from the blood. Blood leaves the liver through the hepatic vein. The blood then flows through the vena cava and back to the heart.

The hepatocytes perform numerous chemical processing functions that are necessary to keep you healthy and alive. The hepatocytes play a role in blood clotting and secreting albumin. Albumin helps to regulate the amount of fluids in your body.

The hepatocytes metabolize nutrients including carbohydrates, fats, cholesterol, and proteins. Your liver functions to maintain appropriate ammonia and blood sugar (glucose) levels. Correct levels of ammonia are necessary for good brain functioning. Your cells use blood sugar for energy. Your liver also stores vitamins, iron, and other minerals.

Another function of the hepatocytes is to filter certain compounds from the blood. Blood arriving from the portal vein contains environmental toxins that were absorbed in the stomach. The liver “detoxifies” or filters the toxins from the blood. The toxins are secreted by your kidneys in urine or secreted into bile that leaves the liver.

Bile is a substance that is produced by your liver and stored in your gallbladder. When you eat fatty foods, bile leaves your gallbladder via the common bile duct and travels to the duodenum, the first part of your small intestine. There, the bile aids in breaking down fats for digestion.

Bile receives its yellow color from bilirubin. Bilirubin is formed from the breakdown of old red blood cells. Your spleen breaks down your old red blood cells. The hepatocytes metabolize the hemoglobin in old red blood cells into a form of bilirubin that can be excreted with bile. This form of bilirubin is called “conjugated bilirubin.” It eventually is removed from your body in your urine or stools. Only a very small amount returns to your bloodstream.

The liver is unique in that it can regenerate itself. If part of the liver is removed, the liver can re-grow tissue. You need a liver to live. If the liver is severely damaged, it needs to be replaced.

Primary liver cancer occurs when the cells in the liver grow abnormally and out of control, instead of dividing in an orderly manner. The most common cause of primary liver cancer is cirrhosis, scarring of the liver. In the United States, cirrhosis is most frequently caused by alcohol abuse. Another type of cancer, metastatic cancer, results when cancer originates in another part of the body and spreads to the liver. Colorectal, kidney, pancreatic, stomach, breast, esophageal, lung, melanoma, and many other types of cancers may spread to the liver.

There are several different types of primary liver cancer. Hepatocellular carcinoma is the most common type. Hepatocellular carcinoma has several subtypes. Some may grow into one large tumor and some types may cause scattered tumors throughout the liver. Cholangiocarcinomas are less common. They originate in the bile ducts. Fibrolamellar liver cancer is rare, but it has the best prognosis for all liver cancer types.

Liver cancer does not always produce symptoms in the early stages. The symptoms of liver cancer may seem vague or similar to that of noncancerous diseases. You should contact your doctor if you develop the symptoms of liver cancer. Early diagnosis and treatment is associated with the best outcomes.

Liver cancer may cause a persistent loss of appetite and weight loss without trying. You may feel very full, even after eating a small amount of food. You may have pain or tenderness in the right upper part of your abdomen or stomach area. Your abdomen may be enlarged or appear swollen. You may bruise or bleed easily. Jaundice may cause your skin and eyes to have a yellow-green color.

Some liver tumors can produce hormone problems that interfere with the function of other organs, causing hypercalcemia, hypoglycemia, and gynecomastia. Hypercalcemia means high blood calcium levels. Hypercalcemia can cause weakness, low blood sugar levels, fainting, confusion, and coma. Hypoglycemia results from low blood sugar levels. Hypoglycemia can cause weakness, headache, visual changes, anxiety, personality changes, and coma. Gynecomastia causes breast enlargement in men.

A doctor can begin to diagnose liver cancer by reviewing your medical history, completing a physical examination, and conducting some tests. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors. Your doctor will carefully examine your abdomen and conduct blood tests to show how your liver is functioning. Imaging tests may be used to help identify the type and location of liver tumors.

Ultrasound, computed tomography (CT) scans, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans are used to show pictures of your liver. An angiography may be used to show the blood supply that leads to the liver. A laparoscopy uses a thin tube that transmits images to a video monitor. The laparoscope is inserted through a small incision in the abdomen. A biopsy is usually the only way to determine if cells are cancerous or not. A biopsy involves obtaining a tissue or fluid sample for examination.

If you have liver cancer, your doctor will assign your cancer a classification stage based on the results of all of your tests. Staging describes the cancer and how it has metastasized. Cancer that has spread from its original site to other parts of the body is termed metastasized cancer. Staging is helpful for treatment planning and recovery prediction.

There is more than one type of staging system for cancer, and you should make sure that you and your doctor are referring to the same one. Generally, lower numbers in a classification system indicate a less serious cancer, and higher numbers indicate a more serious cancer. The stages may be subdivided into classifications that use letters and numbers.

Your doctor will also use terms to describe how your cancer may be treated. Localized resectable liver cancer describes cancer that may be cured with surgery. Unresectable cancer may not be cured with surgery and describes widespread liver cancer or cancer that has spread outside of the liver. Your doctor will also describe the amount of liver cirrhosis, which is considered during treatment planning.

Treatment of liver cancer depends on the stage and type of liver cancer, as well as the amount of liver cirrhosis. At this time surgery to remove the cancer or liver transplantation to replace the liver are the only cures for liver cancer. Tumor ablation, embolization, and chemoembolization are methods used for people that may not be candidates for surgery. These methods do not cure cancer, but they can shrink the tumor and reduce symptoms. Liver cancer cells usually do not respond well to chemotherapy treatment. Radiation therapy may be used to shrink the size of tumors or kill cancer cells to provide symptom relief. For some patients with small tumors liver transplant may provide a cure.

Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) involves a single high-dose radiation treatment. SRS spares healthy tissues because the radiation precisely targets the cancer. Sophisticated software controls the radiation treatment beams to match the exact shape of a tumor or lesion. The beams may be moved to penetrate the cancer from different angles. The procedure is painless and usually performed on an outpatient basis.

The experience of cancer and cancer treatments can be a very emotional experience for people with cancer and their loved ones. It is important to embrace positive sources of support. Some people find comfort in their families, friends, co-workers, counselors, and faith. Cancer support groups are a helpful resource where you can receive support, information, and understanding from people with similar experiences. Ask your doctor for support groups near you.

You may help prevent liver cancer by reducing the risk factors that you can control. It can be helpful to stop smoking and abusing alcohol. You should maintain a healthy weight and blood sugar level.

Risk factors may increase your likelihood of developing liver cancer, although some people that develop liver cancer do not have any risk factors. People with all of the risk factors may never develop the disease; however, the chance of developing liver cancer increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Risk factors for liver cancer:

• Liver cancer is more common in men than women.
• Liver cancer is more common in developing countries in Africa and Asia than it is in the United States.
• Cirrhosis is the most frequent cause of liver cancer in the United States. Smoking, alcohol abuse, Hepatitis B and C, hemochromatosis, and chronic inflammation can contribute to cirrhosis.
• Smoking tobacco increases the risk of liver cancer. People that smoke and abuse alcohol have the greatest risk.
• Viral liver diseases, such as Hepatitis B and C, or certain inherited liver diseases increase the risk of liver cancer. Hepatitis A does not appear to increase the risk of liver cancer.
• Diabetes increases the risk for liver cancer.
• It appears that obesity may increase the risk for liver cancer.
• Cancer causing substances called aflatoxins are produced by a fungus in contaminated food products such as peanuts, wheat, soybeans, corn, and rice. Long-term exposure to aflatoxins increases the risk of liver cancer. This is more of a concern in countries outside of the United States. In the United States, products are tested for aflatoxins.
• Vinyl chloride and thorium dioxide (thorotrast) are industrial chemicals that may increase the risk of liver cancer.
• Anabolic steroids used by some athletes can increase the risk of liver cancer.
• Arsenic exposure increases the risk of liver cancer.
• Many types of cancer can metastasize or spread to the liver, including colorectal, kidney, pancreatic, stomach, breast, esophageal, lung, and melanoma cancer.

The prognosis for liver cancer is generally poor. Liver cancer can cause death. Liver cancer that is diagnosed and treated early is associated with the best outcomes.

Researchers are studying surgical, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy methods of improving treatments for liver cancer. They hope to develop blood tests that may identify liver cancer earlier.

A Lower Gastrointestinal (GI) Series or Barium Enema test provides a series of X-ray images of the large intestine. A barium enema can be used to screen for colon cancer and bowel diseases. Prior to taking X-rays, barium, a chalky substance, and air are used to fill and expand the colon. The barium reveals the bowel’s shape and position on the X-ray images. A barium enema is an outpatient procedure that is performed at a doctor’s office or a hospital’s radiology department.

Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. As water from the waste product is absorbed, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool or feces. It is eventually eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

After you swallow food, it moves through your esophagus and into your stomach. Chemicals in your stomach break down the food into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. Your small intestine breaks down the liquid even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients from the food you ate. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel or colon, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The lower GI tract is divided into sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus. The appendix is located on the cecum, but it does not serve a purpose in the digestive process.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The large intestine moves the stool into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before being traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your digestive tract. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

A Barium Enema is most frequently used to screen for colorectal cancer and bowel diseases. It is helpful for determining the cause of bleeding, pain, bowel obstruction, or changes in bowel habits. The test may be modified for a Double-Contrast Barium Enema. This test uses a fluoroscope to view inside the large intestine to provide a better view of the mucous membrane.

A barium enema is an outpatient procedure that is performed at a doctor’s office, an outpatient radiology center, or a hospital’s radiology department. The test does not require sedation or anesthesia. Preparation instructions for a barium enema generally consist of methods to empty or clean your bowel prior to the test including the use of laxatives, enemas, or a liquid diet. Your doctor will provide you with specific instructions.

You will wear an examination gown for your barium enema. You will lie on your side for the procedure. An initial X-ray is taken prior to receiving the barium.

The barium will be gently inserted through a well-lubricated tube placed in your anus. Barium is a substance that shows up on X-rays. Air may be inserted to open the folds of your colon to provide a better view. You may be asked to change positions during the procedure to enable different views.

After a series of X-rays are taken, the enema tube is carefully removed. You will go to the bathroom to eliminate as much as the barium as possible. Then, a final series of X-rays are taken.

The barium enema may cause temporary discomfort. You may experience cramps, feel full, or as if you need to have a bowel movement. An X-ray is a painless procedure. It simply requires that you remain motionless while a picture is taken. Your doctor will also discuss unexpected symptoms related to the test that may occur and a plan to address them.

A radiologist will read your X-rays and report the results to your doctor. This process may take a few days. Your doctor will contact you or schedule a follow-up appointment when the results are received. If any abnormal results were found by your test, your doctor will discuss treatment plan options with you.

Pancreatic cancer results when the cells in the pancreas grow abnormally and out of control instead of dividing in an orderly manner. The exact cause of pancreatic cancer is unknown. Although the vast majority of pancreatic tumors are cancerous, some are not cancerous. Pancreatic cancer that is diagnosed and treated early is associated with the best outcomes. Treatments for pancreatic cancer include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of therapies.

Your pancreas is a gland. It is located in your upper abdomen behind your stomach. Your pancreas assists with digesting the food that you eat. It produces digestive fluids and digestive hormones.

When you eat, the exocrine gland in your pancreas produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonates. They travel through the pancreatic duct to your small intestine. Your small intestine breaks down the liquefied food from your stomach even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients. The enzymes break down the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in the food that you eat. The bicarbonates protect your small intestine from the irritating digestive acids produced by the stomach. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

The endocrine cells in your pancreas produce digestive hormones. The endocrine cells are arranged in clusters called islets. They release insulin and glucagon into your bloodstream. These digestive hormones help to control your blood sugar (glucose) levels. Your body uses blood sugar for energy.

The exact cause of pancreatic cancer is unknown. Tumors can develop in the pancreas when cells grow abnormally and out of control, forming tumors. Pancreatic tumors may or may not be cancerous. Tumors may originate in the exocrine or endocrine cells. Another type of cancer, ampullary cancer, can occur at the location where the pancreatic duct and the liver bile duct empty into the small intestine.

Cancer originates more frequently in the exocrine cells; however, not all tumors that develop in the exocrine are cancerous. Exocrine tumors most commonly occur in the tail or head of the pancreas. Exocrine cancers are referred to as adenocarcinomas, and there are several subtypes.

Endocrine cell tumors are less common. They may also be referred to as islet tumors. Although some endocrine tumors may be cancerous, the majority of them are not.

Pancreatic cancer may cause abdominal or back pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. You may lose your appetite and lose weight without trying. Jaundice may cause your eyes and skin to appear yellow. You may feel weak, tired, and depressed. Less common symptoms of pancreatic cancer are diabetes and blood clots.

A doctor can begin to diagnose pancreatic cancer by reviewing your medical history and conducting some tests and a physical examination that focuses on the abdominal area. Imaging tests may be used to help identify the cancer and to see if it has spread.

Computed tomography (CT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans are used to take pictures of the pancreas and internal organs. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans use a radioactive sugar substance that cancer cells absorb. The substance makes the location of pancreatic cancer and spreading cancer appear on the photos. CT and PET scans may be used together to help stage cancer and identify early cancers. An ultrasound is an imaging test that uses sound waves to create a picture of the internal organs. An angiography is used to see if a tumor is blocking the blood flow in your pancreas.

An endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) uses a probe that is inserted through the mouth into the stomach. An ERCP uses a dye to view the pancreas, bile ducts, and nearby structures. An endoscope is a thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument at the end of it. After you are sedated, the tube is passed through your mouth and into your small intestine. An endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) is a similar device which uses sound waves to create a picture of your pancreas and surrounding structures. A biopsy forceps may be passed through the EUS to take a sample of the tissue to be examined under the microscope.

Blood tests are used to evaluate your pancreas and liver functioning. A biopsy may be used to determine if the cells in a suspected area are cancerous or not. A biopsy entails obtaining a tissue or fluid sample for examination. A laparoscopy, also referred to as keyhole surgery, involves inserting a thin instrument into the abdomen to identify the size of a tumor and whether it has spread.

If you have pancreatic cancer, your doctor will assign your cancer a classification stage based on the results of all of your tests. Staging describes the cancer and how it has metastasized. Cancer that has spread from its original site to other parts of the body is termed metastatic cancer. Staging is helpful for treatment planning and recovery prediction.

There is more than one type of staging system for cancer, and you should make sure that you and your doctor are referring to the same one. Generally, lower numbers in a classification system indicate a less serious cancer and higher numbers indicate a more serious cancer. The stages may be subdivided into classifications that use letters and numbers.

Treatment for pancreatic cancer depends on the type, extent, and location of the cancer. Pancreatic cancer may be treated with surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of treatments. The goal of pancreatic cancer treatments is to cure the cancer and relieve symptoms. If a cure is not possible, the goal of treatments is to relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life.

Surgery may be used to remove pancreatic tumors. A Whipple procedure, a pancreaticoduodenectomy, is a surgery that removes the head of the pancreas, sections of the stomach and small intestine, common bile duct, gallbladder, and regional lymph nodes. The pancreas and common bile duct are reattached to the small intestine. Another type of surgery may be used for people with a bile obstruction. Surgery and the placement of a biliary stent may be used to relieve an obstruction or blockage.

Radiation therapy uses high energy X-rays to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation therapy may be received before a surgery to reduce the size of a tumor. It may be received after surgery to help prevent the cancer from returning. Radiation therapy and chemotherapy may be used to treat cancer that has spread.

Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells. It may be used alone to treat early stage pancreatic cancer or in combination with other treatment methods. Chemotherapy may be combined with targeted therapy drugs for people with advanced pancreatic cancer.

The experience of cancer and cancer treatments may be a very emotional experience for you and your loved ones. It is important to embrace positive sources of support. Some people find comfort in their families, friends, co-workers, counselors, and faith. Cancer support groups are a helpful resource where you can receive support, information, and understanding from people with similar experiences. Ask your doctor for support groups near you.

There is no way to prevent pancreatic cancer at this time. It may be helpful to reduce the risk factors that you can control, such as quitting smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, and eating a well-balanced diet.

Risk factors may increase your likelihood of developing pancreatic cancer, although some people that develop pancreatic cancer do not have any risk factors. People with all of the risk factors may never develop the disease; however, the chance of developing pancreatic cancer increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Risk factors for pancreatic cancer:

• The risk of pancreatic cancer increases with age. The majority of pancreatic cancers occur in people that are over age 55.
• Men experience pancreatic cancer more frequently than women.
• African Americans experience the most cases of pancreatic cancer.
• Smoking is a significant risk factor for pancreatic cancer.
• People that are very overweight or obese have a higher risk of pancreatic cancer.
• Diabetes increases the risk of pancreatic cancer.
• Chronic pancreatitis, a long-term inflammation of the pancreas, is a risk factor for pancreatic cancer.
• Exposure to certain chemicals, such as bug spray, dyes, or gasoline products may increase the risk of pancreatic cancer.
• It appears that some types of pancreatic cancer may be inherited. If your family members have had pancreatic cancer, ask your doctor about your risk. Genetic tests or tumor marker tests may be used to help show if you have a high risk of developing pancreatic cancer.

Pancreatic cancer can be associated with other significant medical problems, including blood clots, weight loss, liver dysfunction, infections, pain, and depression. Pancreatic cancer may spread beyond the pancreas. Unfortunately, most pancreatic cancers have spread by the time they are diagnosed. Pancreatic cancer is generally associated with a poor prognosis.

Researchers are working on ways to identify pancreatic cancer early, before it causes symptoms or spreads. Tumor marker tests may show higher levels of CA 19-9 and CEA in some people with pancreatic cancer. Genetic tests are available to show if you have a high risk of pancreatic cancer. These tests are not used to screen the general population for pancreatic cancer, but may be an option for people with a strong family history.

Researchers are studying ways to boost the immune system to fight cancer and new cancer treatments that combine chemotherapy, radiation, and other treatment methods. Clinical trials are in progress for new medications called anti-angiogenesis factors. Anti-angiogenesis factors block the growth of the blood vessels that support the cancer tumors and essentially starve the tumor.

Pancreatitis results when the pancreas is inflamed. Your pancreas is a gland located near your stomach. It produces fluids that assist with food digestion. Certain conditions can cause the digestive fluids to become trapped inside the pancreas. As the fluids accumulate, they cause pain and swelling. This can lead to pancreas damage and loss of function.

Pancreatitis needs to be treated to avoid life threatening medical complications. Treatment for pancreatitis is aimed at treating the underlying cause of the inflammation, relieving symptoms, and restoring function. This may be achieved with medications and in some cases surgery.

Your pancreas is a gland. It is located in your upper abdomen behind your stomach. Your pancreas assists with digesting the food that you eat. It produces digestive fluids and digestive hormones.

When you eat, your pancreas produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonates. They travel through the pancreatic duct to your small intestine. Your small intestine breaks down the liquefied food from your stomach even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients. The enzymes break down the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in the food that you ate. The bicarbonates protect your small intestine from the irritating digestive acids produced by the stomach. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your pancreas also produces endocrine hormones. Your pancreas releases insulin and glucagon into your bloodstream. These hormones help to control your blood sugar (glucose) levels. Your body uses blood sugar for energy.

Pancreatitis results when the pancreas becomes swollen and painful (inflamed). Inflammation occurs when the pancreatic duct is blocked causing the digestive fluids to become trapped and accumulate in the pancreas. This can cause autodigestion, a condition in which the ordinarily inactive digestive fluids inside the pancreas become activated and digest the pancreas tissue. Autodigestion can lead to bleeding, infection, and damage to the pancreas. As the condition progresses, the surrounding blood vessels can be affected as well. The damage can eventually cause the pancreas to stop functioning. It may not be able to produce the enzymes to digest fats or make insulin. Diabetes results if the pancreas does not produce insulin.

Alcohol abuse and gallstones are the leading causes of pancreatitis. Alcohol abuse-related pancreatitis is more common in men that have been heavy drinkers. Gallstones are solid particles that result from an imbalance of bile components in the gallbladder. Gallstones can cause pancreatitis if they block the pancreatic duct and cause a build-up of digestive fluids. Pancreatitis resulting from gallstones occurs most frequently in women over the age of 50.

Several other factors can cause pancreatitis. These include direct trauma, certain medications, hereditary diseases, surgery, infections, structural abnormalities, and high blood fat levels. In many cases of pancreatitis, the cause is unknown.

Pancreatitis can be acute or chronic. Acute pancreatitis usually causes mild symptoms that last for a short time. After the episode or “pancreatic attack,” the pancreas returns to normal functioning. Some people may have one episode of pancreatitis, while others experience repeated episodes. Chronic pancreatitis results from scarring and damage from repeated episodes of acute pancreatitis. With chronic pancreatitis, the pancreas does not return to normal functioning after an attack. Instead, the pancreas becomes increasingly damaged over time.

Both acute and chronic pancreatitis can be severe and life threatening. Pain is the most common symptom of acute pancreatitis. The pain may start suddenly and be severe or it may start gradually and become increasingly severe. The pain occurs in the upper left or upper middle area of the abdomen. The pain is usually ongoing and may spread to your back and below your left shoulder blade. It usually lasts for a few days. Your pain may become worse after eating high-fat foods, drinking alcohol, or lying on your back.

Acute pancreatitis can make you feel very sick. You may experience nausea, vomiting, sweating, anxiety, fever, chills, rapid heartbeat, and mild jaundice. Jaundice is a condition caused by an excess of bilirubin. Symptoms of jaundice include yellowing of the eyes and skin, dark urine, nausea, and vomiting. Your stomach may appear swollen and hurt when you touch it.

If you experience acute pancreatitis with an infection or bleeding, you may become dehydrated and develop low blood pressure. In severe conditions, people can develop shock. Shock is a life-threatening condition and requires emergency medical treatment. Symptoms of shock include dizziness, lightheadedness, faintness, or unconsciousness. You may feel confused and anxious. Your skin may be pale, sweaty, cool, and clammy. Your lips or fingernails may turn blue.

Additional symptoms of shock include a rapid heart beat, weak pulse, shallow breathing, and chest pain. You should call or have another person call the emergency medical services in your area, usually 911.

Repeated episodes of acute pancreatitis can cause prolonged pain and lead to chronic pancreatitis. Chronic pancreatitis is an ongoing condition. As the condition of the pancreas becomes worse, the pain usually goes away. This is not a good sign and an indication that the pancreas has stopped functioning. When the pancreas stops functioning, other complications can develop including diabetes, an inability to digest food, weight loss, bleeding, liver problems, and anemia, a shortage of red blood cells.

Your doctor can start to diagnose pancreatitis by reviewing your medical history, surgical history, and conducting a physical examination. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms and risk factors for pancreatitis. Your doctor will conduct tests to help diagnose pancreatitis and rule out other conditions with similar symptoms. Lab tests are used to assess pancreas, liver, and kidney functions. Your blood will be tested for infection, anemia, and blood sugar levels. Imaging tests are usually ordered as well. Common imaging tests include X-rays, Computed Tomography (CT) scans, ultrasound, and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP).

An X-ray is used to look for structural complications of the pancreas. A CT scan produces more detailed images than an X-ray. It can show inflammation or damage in the pancreas. The X-ray and CT scan are painless procedures. They simply require that you remain motionless while the pictures are taken.

An ultrasound is used to examine the ducts from the gallbladder, liver, and pancreas. It is useful for detecting gallstones, signs of infection or inflammation, and organ enlargement. To take an ultrasound, a technician will gently place a small device on your abdomen. The device transmits sound waves to a monitor for viewing.

An ERCP uses an endoscope to view the pancreas and nearby structures for damage in cases of chronic pancreatitis. An endoscope is a thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument at the end of it. After you are sedated, the tube is passed through your mouth and into your small intestine. Dye may be administered to enhance viewing. In some cases, an endoscope is used to remove gallstones or open the ducts to improve the flow of bile or other digestive juices.

Treatment for pancreatitis is aimed at treating the underlying cause of the condition, relieving symptoms, and restoring pancreatic function. People with acute pancreatitis are usually admitted to the hospital for care. Depending on their condition, they may need oxygen, pain medication, antibiotics, IV medication, fluids, and nutrition. In some cases, a nasogastric (NG) tube is used to remove stomach fluids to promote healing. A NG tube is made of thin flexible plastic. It is inserted through the nose to the stomach. People in critical condition may need a ventilator to help them breathe. A ventilator is a machine that mechanically breathes for a person until they are able to do so independently.

Chronic pancreatitis can usually be treated without a hospital stay. Treatment goals for chronic pancreatitis include pain relief, reducing pancreatic irritation, and improving the ability to eat and digest food. Prescription medication is used to treat pain or aid in digestion. Lifestyle and dietary changes can help with food digestion. You should not drink alcohol. It can help to eat several small meals per day. Meals should be high in carbohydrates and low in fat. People that develop diabetes need to monitor their blood sugar levels and use insulin if their pancreas does not produce it anymore.

Surgery may be necessary to remove or repair pancreatic tissues that are bleeding or infected. Surgery may also be used to remove gallstones and sometimes the gallbladder if it is the cause of pancreatitis. The most common surgery is laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy uses a small lighted camera, a laparoscope, to guide the surgery. A Laparoscopic cholecystectomy uses small incisions, which shortens the recovery time.

Acute pancreatitis occurs more frequently in adults than children and in more men than women. Alcohol related acute and chronic pancreatitis is more common in men. Pancreatitis caused by gallstones is more common in women that are over the age of 50 years old.

Severe pancreatitis can lead to dehydration and very low blood pressure. This may cause shock. Shock is a life-threatening condition and requires emergency medical treatment. Symptoms of shock include dizziness, lightheadedness, faintness, or unconsciousness. You may feel confused and anxious. Your skin may be pale, sweaty, cool, and clammy. Your lips or fingernails may turn blue. Additional symptoms of shock include a rapid heart beat, weak pulse, shallow breathing, and chest pain. Emergency medical services in your area, usually 911, should be called if shock is suspected.

Serious life threatening complications can develop with chronic pancreatitis including bleeding, breathing problems, liver problems, kidney failure, brain damage, and anemia. The pancreas can become vulnerable to infection. Fluid-filled cysts (called pseudocysts) can infect the abdominal area and require surgical removal. If the pancreas stops functioning, diabetes, an inability to digest food and weight loss can occur. Further, chronic pancreatitis is associated with an increased risk for developing pancreatic cancer. The outlook for pancreatic cancer is poor.

By stopping alcohol use, you may reduce future pancreatitis episodes, prevent current pancreatitis from getting worse, and reduce the chance of serious complications. Some people with mild pancreatitis may relieve their symptoms by using over-the-counter pain medications, stopping alcohol use, and consuming a liquid diet.

Constipation refers to a change and decrease in bowel movements. Constipation can be very uncomfortable but is rarely linked to a serious medical condition. It can cause hard stools that are difficult and painful to pass. A poor diet, poor bowel habits, physical inactivity, and older age are common factors associated with constipation. Constipation is treated with dietary changes, lifestyle changes, and in some cases, medications.

Your child's body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via the digestive system. Whenever your child eats and drinks, food travels through your child's digestive system for processing. As water from the waste product is absorbed, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool or feces. It is eventually eliminated from your child's body when he or she has a bowel movement.

After food is swallowed, it moves through the esophagus and into the stomach. Chemicals in your child's stomach break down the food into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your child's stomach to your child's small intestine. The small intestine breaks down the liquid even further so that your child's body can absorb the nutrients from the food. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

The large intestine, also called the large bowel, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The first part of the large intestine is the colon. The large intestine is divided into sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus. The appendix is located on the cecum, but it does not serve a purpose in the digestive process.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The large intestine moves the stool through the large intestine into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before being traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of the large intestine. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through the anus when your child has a bowel movement.

Constipation refers to a change and decrease in bowel movements. Stools become hard because they contain less water than usual. This makes the stools difficult and painful to pass. A poor diet, poor bowel habits, physical inactivity, older age, and certain diseases or medical conditions can cause constipation. Diets that are high in fats, refined sugar, and low in fiber can cause constipation. Not drinking enough water can contribute to constipation.

Poor bowel habits are associated with constipation. For healthy bowels, your child should go to the bathroom when he or she feels the urge to have a bowel movement. Holding a bowel movement can lead to progressive constipation. This may occur in people who are apprehensive about using public restrooms or in children that are resisting toilet training.

Certain medical conditions including irritable bowel syndrome, intestinal obstruction, pregnancy, thyroid conditions, and neurological disorders can cause constipation. It can occur as a side effect of some medications. It can also occur as a consequence of laxative abuse.

Constipation can be very uncomfortable because of changes in your child's stools and bowel habits. Your child's bowel movements may occur more infrequently than usual. It may be difficult for your child to start a bowel movement. Your child's stools may become hard and take a long time to pass. Passing a stool may be difficult and painful. Constipation can lead to hemorrhoids or rectal prolapse. Rectal prolapse is a condition that occurs when part of the intestinal lining comes out through the rectum.

You should contact your doctor if your child experiences rectal prolapse, blood in his or her stool, very thin stools, unexplained weight loss, or severe pain, which may be symptoms of other medical conditions. Your child should receive immediate emergency medical attention for symptoms of an intestinal blockage including a sudden inability to pass gas or stools, abdominal pain, and vomiting.

Your doctor can diagnose constipation by reviewing your child's medical history and asking you questions about your child's bowel movements. You should tell your doctor about your child's symptoms and risk factors. Your doctor will conduct a physical examination and test your child's stools and blood. Your child's thyroid functioning may also be assessed, as hypothyroidism can contribute to constipation.

Your doctor may refer your child to a gastroenterologist for special tests. A gastroenterologist is a doctor that specializes in digestive tract conditions. Additional tests may be ordered to help determine the cause of your constipation and to rule out other conditions with similar symptoms, such as an intestinal blockage.

Your doctor will examine your child's abdomen to feel for growths or enlarged organs. Your doctor may also perform a digital rectal examination. An X-ray of your child's abdomen may reveal an intestinal obstruction or other problems. An X-ray simply requires that your child remain motionless while a camera takes a picture. In some cases, doctors may order additional imaging tests such as a sigmoidoscopy or a colonoscopy.

A flexible sigmoidoscopy is used to view the rectum and part of the colon. A sigmoidscope is a thin tube with a light and viewing instrument. It is about two feet long. The sigmoidscope is placed in the colon, through the anus. This test can be uncomfortable, but should not be painful.

A colonoscopy is used to view the entire colon. A colonscope is similar to a sigmoidscope, but it is much longer. A tissue sample or biopsy may also be taken with the colonscope. A colonoscopy can be uncomfortable, and your child will receive medication to relax him or her prior to the test.

A virtual colonoscopy is a newer way to view the colon with a computed tomography (CT) scan. A CT scan takes a series of images to compose a detailed picture. A virtual colonoscopy involves filling the colon with air and then taking the CT scans. The CT images construct a visual depiction of the interior of the colon. The colon can also be viewed with a barium enema with air contrast test. For this test, the barium, a chalky substance, and air are used to fill and expand the colon. Next, X-rays are taken. These tests can be uncomfortable. Any abnormal results are followed up with a colonoscopy.

Your doctor will first treat any underlying medical condition that is contributing to your child's constipation. A dietary component is always a part of the treatment plan. Recommendations usually include eating more foods that are high in fiber and drinking plenty of water and fruit juices. It is also important that your child gets plenty of regular exercise. Additionally, your child should go to the bathroom as soon as he or she feels the need to have a bowel movement.

Initially, doctors may recommend some medications. Your doctor may prescribe bulk-forming agents, stool softeners, or laxatives. You should discuss long-term medication options with your doctor, if necessary. Over-the-counter laxatives are not recommended for long-term use.

Is My Child at Risk?

Certain factors can lead to constipation. They include eating a poor diet, physical inactivity, older age, certain medical conditions, and some medications. You should tell your doctor about your child's risk factors and discuss your concerns. There may be changes you can make to eliminate selected risk factors.

Your child should receive immediate emergency medical attention for symptoms of an intestinal blockage including a sudden inability to pass gas or stools, abdominal pain, and vomiting. You should contact your doctor if your child experiences blood in his or her stool, very thin stools, unexplained weight loss, or severe pain, which may be symptoms of other medical conditions. Constipation can lead to hemorrhoids or rectal prolapse. Rectal prolapse is a condition that occurs when part of the intestinal lining comes out through the rectum.

There are several steps your child can take to prevent constipation. It is helpful to eat a diet that is high in fiber including fresh fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. It is important to drink plenty of water and fruit juices. Your child should exercise regularly. Your child should establish healthy bowel habits. Your child should go to the bathroom when he or she feels the need to void.

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) is a digestive condition. It is also called Peptic Esophagitis and Reflux Esophagitis. GERD results when stomach contents and stomach acids enter the esophagus. The esophagus is the tube that transfers food from the throat to the stomach. At the bottom of the esophagus, a ring of muscles opens to allow food into the stomach. Normally, the ring closes tightly after the food has entered. With GERD, the ring does not close tightly. Instead, it remains open and allows stomach contents and acids to pass back into the esophagus, damaging the lining.

GERD is a common condition. The main symptom of GERD is heartburn. GERD can be prevented. It is treated with lifestyle changes and medications. Surgery is rarely needed. Untreated GERD can result in serious medical complications.

The esophagus is a tube that moves food from the throat to the stomach. When your child eats, his or her tongue moves chewed food to the back of the throat. When your child swallows, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Muscles in the esophagus wall slowly squeeze the food toward your child’s stomach.

A ring of muscles is located at the bottom of the esophagus. It is called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). The LES opens to allow food to enter the stomach. The LES closes tightly after the food enters. This prevents stomach contents and acids from entering the esophagus.

The stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. The stomach secretes mucus to protect the lining of the stomach from the acids. The esophagus does not secrete mucus and is not protected from stomach acids.

GERD occurs when the LES remains relaxed and opened. Reflux happens when the stomach acids and contents “back up” and enter the esophagus. The stomach acids irritate and damage the lining of the esophagus.

The exact cause of the LES relaxation is not known. There are some factors that can make the condition worse either by directly irritating the esophagus or relaxing the LES. Such lifestyle factors include cigarette smoking, consuming alcohol, and poor posture/slouching.

GERD can occur during pregnancy. The LES may not close tightly during pregnancy because of the relaxing effects of hormones and increased abdominal pressure. Other medical conditions associated with GERD include diabetes, obesity, scleroderma, and hiatal hernia. Additionally, certain medications that relax the LES may contribute to GERD.

Finally, poor eating habits can contribute to GERD. Overeating, eating large meals, and eating before bedtime or lying down can cause food to back up from the stomach into the esophagus. Some foods are especially irritating. These include fatty and fried foods; chocolate; garlic and onions; beverages or food containing caffeine; spicy foods; foods high in acid, such as tomatoes and citrus fruits; and candy or food containing mint flavorings.

The major symptom of GERD is heartburn. Heartburn causes uncomfortable or burning pain behind the breastbone. Your child may experience heartburn after eating, lying down, or bending forward. Heartburn from GERD usually occurs within two hours after eating. If your child’s heartburn lasts for several hours, your child may have severe GERD. Some people experience heartburn and do not have GERD. Some people with GERD do not experience heartburn. However, if your child experiences symptoms more than twice a week, your child may have GERD.

GERD can cause chest pain with heartburn. The pain may feel dull and heavy in your child’s chest. Heartburn does not involve the heart in any way. The condition was named “heartburn” because the area of discomfort is located near the heart. However, the chest pain with heartburn can be confused with the chest pain associated with a heart attack. You should call emergency services if you suspect a person is having a heart attack. Symptoms of a heart attack include chest pain that is crushing or squeezing, or a feeling like a heavy weight is on the chest. These symptoms may occur with sweating, shortness of breath, nausea or vomiting, dizziness, lightheadedness, and pain that spreads from the chest to the neck or jaw.

GERD can cause your child to have a sour or bitter taste in his or her mouth. This occurs because of the back flow of stomach acid. Your child may have bad breath. Your child may also produce an excessive amount of saliva.

Your child’s voice may be hoarse in the morning. Your child may have trouble swallowing. Your child may feel like there is something stuck in his or her throat. Your child may have laryngitis, a sore throat, and a frequent need to clear his or her throat.

Certain lung problems may occur with GERD. Your child may experience difficulty with breathing. Your child may cough or wheeze. GERD can contribute to asthma and worsen the symptoms of asthma in people who already have it.

Your doctor may be able to diagnose GERD during an office visit by listening to your child’s symptoms. If your child has experienced symptoms for a long time or your child’s symptoms do not get better with medication, your doctor may refer you to a gastroenterologist for some stomach tests. A gastroenterologist is a doctor that specializes in digestive tract conditions.

You may be referred for a test called an Upper Gastrointestinal (GI) Endoscopy. An endoscope is a thin tube with a tiny light and camera at the very end. After your child is lightly sedated, the thin endoscope will be placed in your child’s mouth and gently guided down your child’s esophagus. Your doctor will be able to see the condition of your child’s esophagus by viewing the images sent from the camera to a video monitor. The Upper GI Endoscopy allows your doctor to identify inflammation, bleeding, cancer, ulcers, other conditions, or narrowing of the esophagus. Your doctor will also be able to rule out other conditions such as Barrett’s esophagus, a complication of GERD, or peptic ulcers, by taking a tissue sample.

An Esophageal Manometry measures the muscle function in the esophagus and the LES. A thin tube will be placed in your child’s esophagus through your child’s nose or mouth. During the test your child will be asked to swallow his or her saliva and to swallow liquids. The tube has sensors that detect the pressure in various parts of the esophagus. As the esophagus muscles contract and squeeze the tube, the pressures are transmitted and recorded in a computer.

PH Monitoring determines how much stomach acid backs up into the esophagus and how long it stays there. It also measures the strength of your child’s stomach acid. This test may take place over a period of time, such as 24 hours. Your doctor will place a very thin tube through your child’s nose and into his or her esophagus. This device will measure your child’s stomach acid levels as your child goes about his or her regular activities. A newer version of pH Monitoring uses a tiny capsule that is placed in the esophagus. The capsule measures pH levels and transmits the results by radio wave to a receiver that your child wears on a belt. After about 48 hours the capsule passes harmlessly through your child’s digestive tract.

The goals of GERD treatment are to reduce reflux, relieve symptoms, and prevent damage to the esophagus. Some doctors recommend treating GERD in a step-wise fashion. For cases of mild GERD, lifestyle changes may be enough. The second step is to use nonprescription antacids. More severe cases may need prescription medication or surgery. Surgery is never the first treatment option for GERD.

Simple lifestyle changes may help relieve the symptoms of mild GERD. These include not smoking, not drinking alcohol, and not consuming foods that irritate the esophagus. It is helpful to eat small meals throughout the day instead of large meals. Your child should avoid eating before bedtime or lying down after eating. It can be helpful to raise the head of your child’s bed six inches. Additionally, your child should maintain a healthy weight and good posture.

If lifestyle changes do not work, it can be helpful to use an over-the-counter antacid. Antacids work by neutralizing the stomach acid and coating the stomach. Antacids relieve symptoms rapidly, but only temporarily. If your child needs antacids for over two weeks, you should contact your doctor and discuss other appropriate treatments.

Your doctor may prescribe a stronger medication, usually acid blockers or histamine-2 (H2) blockers. These drugs block acid creation in the stomach. They prevent GERD because there is less acid to back up into the esophagus. If the acid blockers fail, your doctor may prescribe medications that are proton pump inhibitors. Proton pump inhibitors stop all acid production in the stomach. Another medication option is promotility drugs. Promotility drugs speed up the rate that the stomach empties food and acid. They also help to tighten the LES. This helps to prevent stomach acid from backing up into the esophagus.

Your child may need surgery if prescription medications fail and your child is experiencing serious complications. The operation for GERD is called a fundoplication. It involves tightening the LES and tying the stomach to prevent stomach acid from entering the esophagus. Fundoplication surgery is successful for most people.

People with GERD should follow their doctor’s recommendations and take their medication as directed. People who take medications should still work to make lifestyle changes to reduce the symptoms of and prevent the advancement of GERD. There are several things that you can do to prevent reflux and irritation to the esophagus.

To prevent GERD, your child should not smoke, drink alcohol, or consume foods that irritate the esophagus. Your child should not overeat, eat large meals, or eat before bedtime or lying down. Your child should avoid foods that are especially irritating. These include fatty and fried foods; chocolate; garlic and onions; beverages or food containing caffeine; spicy foods; foods high in acid, such as tomatoes and citrus fruits; and candy or food containing mint flavorings. It is also helpful for your child to maintain a healthy weight and use good posture.

Is My Child at Risk?

Risk factors may increase your child’s likelihood of developing GERD. People with all of the risk factors may never develop the condition; however, the chance of developing GERD increases with the more risk factors your child has. You should tell your doctor about your child’s risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Risk factors for GERD:

• Being overweight or obese can increase abdominal pressure causing food to back up into the esophagus.
• The hormones produced during pregnancy can relax the LES. The hormones can also relax the muscles in the esophagus and cause food to move more slowly. Additionally, abdominal pressure during pregnancy can cause food to back up into the esophagus.
• Cigarette smoking is an irritant. The nicotine from tobacco relaxes the LES. Cigarette smoking can also reduce the amount of saliva produced. A lack of saliva can make the esophagus lining more sensitive to the stomach acids. It can also cause heartburn to be more severe.
• Drinking alcohol increases the likelihood that stomach acids will back up into the esophagus.
• Eating certain foods can relax the LES. Such foods include chocolate, caffeine products, fatty foods, greasy foods, spicy foods, citrus products, tomato-based foods, mints, or mint flavored foods.
• Certain medications can aggravate reflux in some people. Over-the-counter medications include aspirin and ibuprofen. This also includes certain prescription medications for asthma, emphysema, and osteoporosis.
• Older adults have an increased risk because the esophagus muscles can weaken with age. The esophagus may lose its wave pattern or have weak inconsistent contractions.
• Scleroderma increases the risk of developing GERD. Scleroderma is a rare autoimmune disease in which a person’s immune system destroys healthy tissues.
• A hiatal hernia increases the risk of developing GERD. A hiatal hernia occurs when a part of the stomach protrudes through the muscles and into the chest wall. A major symptom of a hiatal hernia is the back flow of stomach acid into the esophagus.

Several serious medical complications can result from advanced GERD. The back flow of stomach acid contributes to these conditions. Some people with advanced GERD may experience bleeding or difficulty swallowing. Inflammation can affect the structures in the esophagus, throat, voice box, nasal airways, and lungs. The stomach acid can also harm tooth enamel. Further, researchers suspect that there may be a connection between untreated GERD and esophageal cancer.

A newer version of pH Monitoring uses a tiny capsule that is placed in the esophagus. The capsule measures pH levels and transmits the results by radio wave to a receiver that you wear on a belt. After about 48 hours the capsule passes harmlessly through your child’s digestive tract. This newer method eliminates the need for a nose tube.

Research trials are focusing on new surgery methods. The research trials will determine if the new surgery methods are safe and effective treatments for GERD. These include the Stretta Radiofrequency Procedure, EndoCinch Procedure, and Enteryx Injections. The Stretta Radiofrequency Procedure involves using radiofrequency delivered through the endoscope to tighten the LES. The EndoCinch Procedure uses an endoscopic sewing device to place sutures to correct the LES. Enteryx Injections are delivered by the endoscope. Enteryx is a medication that forms a spongy mass in the esophagus and reinforces the LES to prevent the back flow of stomach acid.

The stomach flu, also called viral gastroenteritis, is the leading cause of severe diarrhea. It can also cause vomiting and abdominal pain. The virus is found in contaminated food or drinking water. Symptoms of the stomach flu usually develop within 4 to 48 hours after exposure to the virus. The goal of treatment is to prevent dehydration while the virus runs its course.

Whenever your child eats and drinks, food travels through his or her digestive system for processing. Your child’s body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via his or her digestive system. When your child eats, his or her tongue moves chewed food to the back of the throat. When your child swallows, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. The esophagus is a tube that moves food from the throat to the stomach.

The stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. The stomach processes food into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from the stomach to the small intestine. The liquid solidifies as it moves through the large intestine, forming a stool. The stool is eliminated from your child’s body when he or she has a bowel movement.

There are many viruses that cause the stomach flu. Rotavirus and Norwalk virus are the most common ones. The viruses are found in contaminated food or drinking water. The viruses are frequently spread by poor hand washing. They can spread among groups of people. Symptoms typically appear within 4 to 48 hours after exposure to the virus.

Symptoms of the stomach flu usually last from one to two days. The stomach flu can cause diarrhea and vomiting. Your child may experience nausea, abdominal pain, or cramping. This may cause your child to have incontinence, a bowel movement when he or she does not intend to. Your child may get the chills or a fever. Your child’s joints and muscles may feel sore and stiff. Your child’s skin may feel clammy, and he or she may sweat a lot. The stomach flu may cause your child to lose weight. In rare cases, people may vomit blood.

The rotavirus can cause severe symptoms in infants, children, and the elderly. Severe symptoms can lead to severe dehydration and death. You should consult your doctor if your infant or child has symptoms of the stomach flu. You should contact your doctor if you are elderly and experiencing severe symptoms.

Call your doctor if your child’s stomach flu lasts longer than a few days. You should call your doctor if your child experiences symptoms including faintness, dizziness, dry mouth, and blood in the stool. Other symptoms of concern are producing small amounts of urine and having a sunken appearance of the eyes. An infant may present sunken fontanels, the “soft spots” on the head.

Your doctor can diagnose the stomach flu by reviewing your child’s medical history and performing an examination. You should tell your doctor about your child’s symptoms. Your doctor may test your child’s stool sample to determine if the symptoms your child is experiencing are from a virus or bacteria.

The main goal of treatment is to promote hydration. Fluids, salts, and minerals need to be replaced. Your doctor can recommend fluid replacement drinks for infants and children. People with severe symptoms or dehydration may need to have fluids administered via an IV line.

The stomach virus usually goes away on its own in a few days. Antibiotics do not work on viruses.

The stomach flu can be prevented with good hand washing.Hands should be washed thoroughly after going to the bathroom and before handling food.

Is My Child at Risk?

People with the highest risk for getting the stomach flu include infants, children, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems.

The rotavirus can cause severe symptoms in infants, children, and the elderly. Severe symptoms can lead to severe dehydration and death. You should consult your doctor if your infant or child has symptoms of the stomach flu. You should contact your doctor if you are elderly and experiencing severe symptoms.

Call your doctor if your child’s stomach flu lasts longer than a few days. You should call your doctor if your child experiences symptoms including faintness, dizziness, dry mouth, and blood in the stool. Other symptoms of concern are producing small amounts of urine and having a sunken appearance of the eyes. An infant may present sunken fontanels, the “soft spots” on the head.

In 2006 a vaccine was approved to prevent the rotavirus in infants.

Rectal cancer is cancer that develops in the rectum. The rectum is the last six inches of the large intestine. Bleeding and a change in bowel patterns are common symptoms of rectal cancer. Most rectal cancers are treated with surgery and radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or both.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool or feces. The large intestine moves the stool through the large intestine into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your large intestine which stores stool. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

The exact cause of rectal cancer is unknown. Cancer occurs when cells in the interior lining of the rectum grow abnormally and out of control, instead of dividing in an orderly manner. Increasing age and a family history of rectal, colon, or certain other cancers appear to increase the risk of rectal cancer.

Hallmark symptoms of rectal cancer include a change in bowel habits and blood in the stool. The blood may be bright red or very dark. Your stools may change shape and be narrower than usual. You may have diarrhea, vomiting, or constipation. It may feel like your bowel does not completely empty when you go to the bathroom. You may experience frequent gas, bloating, fullness, or cramps. You may feel tired all of the time and lose weight without trying.

You should contact your doctor if you experience the symptoms of rectal cancer. Other non-cancerous conditions may have symptoms similar to rectal cancer, but you need to have your doctor make that determination. Rectal cancer that is diagnosed and treated early is associated with the best outcomes.

Your doctor will review your medical history. It is important to tell your doctor about your risk factors and symptoms. Your doctor will conduct a rectal examination to detect abnormal masses or growths. Your doctor may use other evaluations to help diagnose your condition.

A stool blood test can detect small amounts of blood in your stool. The fecal occult blood test (FOBT) or the fecal immunochemical test (FIT) is commonly used. You will receive a kit and instructions for taking a stool sample at home. The kit is sent to a laboratory for testing. If the test results are positive, your doctor will order a sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy to identify the exact cause of bleeding.

A flexible sigmoidoscopy is used to view the rectum and part of the colon for cancer or polyps. A sigmoidscope is a thin tube with a light and viewing instrument. It is about two feet long. The sigmoidscope is placed in the colon, through the rectum. This test can be uncomfortable, but should not be painful.

A colonoscopy is used to view the entire colon. A colonoscope is similar to a sigmoidoscope, but it is much longer. A colonoscope allows a doctor to examine the colon for cancer or polyps. A tissue sample or biopsy may also be taken with the colonoscope. A colonoscopy can be uncomfortable, and you will receive medication to relax you prior to the test.

A lower gastrointestinal (GI) series or barium enema test provides a series of X-ray images of the rectum and large intestine. A barium enema is commonly used to screen for cancer and bowel diseases. Prior to taking X-rays, barium, a chalky substance, and air are used to fill and expand the intestine. The barium reveals the bowel’s shape and position on the X-ray images. A barium enema is an outpatient procedure that is performed at a doctor’s office or a hospital’s radiology department.

If you have rectal cancer, your doctor will assign your cancer a classification stage based on the results of all of your tests. Staging describes the cancer and how it has metastasized. Staging is helpful for treatment planning and recovery prediction.

There is more than one type of staging system for cancer, and you should make sure that you and your doctor are referring to the same one. Generally, lower numbers in a classification system indicate a less serious cancer, and higher numbers indicate a more serious cancer. The stages may be subdivided into grades or classifications that use letters and numbers.

Rectal cancer is treated with surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of treatment types. The type of treatment that you receive may depend on several factors, including the stage of your cancer and your general health. Surgery is the most common treatment for rectal cancer.

A local excision may be used to remove rectal cancer that is found very early. For instance, a polyp may be removed from the rectum without cutting into the abdomen. A local resection is a procedure that is used to remove the cancer and the tissue around it. A local resection usually leaves the anus sphincter intact, and following surgery you will be able to have bowel movements. A resection and colostomy may be necessary if the rectum cannot be sewn back together again. A stoma, opening at the side of the body, is created for waste products to move through, which are collected in a colostomy bag. With a colostomy, you will not be able to have bowel movements as you did before.

Radiation therapy uses high-energy rays to destroy cancer cells. External radiation or internal radiation therapy may be used to treat rectal cancer. External radiation delivers radiation from an external source, a machine. Internal radiation therapy, brachytherapy, involves implanting radioactive seed pellets in or near the cancer. The seeds deliver a slow dose of radiation. Internal radiation methods may also use radioactive wires, needles, or catheters. The type of radiation that you receive depends on the type of cancer that you have.

Chemotherapy uses cancer fighting drugs or combinations of drugs to kill cancer cells. You may receive chemotherapy in the form of pills or they may be injected through a needle. Chemotherapy may be used in combination with radiation therapy or after surgery to destroy any remaining cancer cells.

Even with treatment, some cases of rectal cancer may return. This is termed “recurrent rectal cancer.” Your doctor can explain your risk for rectal cancer and possible treatments if it does recur.

The experience of rectal cancer and cancer treatments can be an emotional process for people with cancer and their loved ones. It is important that you receive support from a positive source. Some people find comfort in their family, friends, counselors, co-workers, and faith. Cancer support groups are another good option. They can be a source of information and support from people who understand what you are experiencing. Ask your doctor for cancer support group locations in your area.

You should contact your doctor as soon as you experience the symptoms of rectal cancer. Rectal cancer that is diagnosed and treated early is associated with the best outcomes.

Risk factors may increase your likelihood of developing rectal cancer, although some people that develop rectal cancer do not have any risk factors. People with all of the risk factors may never develop the disease; however, the chance of developing rectal cancer increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Risk factors for rectal cancer:

• People that are 50 years old and older have a higher risk for rectal cancer.
• People with a family history of colon or rectal cancer have a higher risk of rectal cancer.
• People that have experienced colon, rectal, ovary, endometrium, or breast cancer have a higher risk of rectal cancer.
• People with inflammatory bowel disease have an increased risk of developing rectal cancer.
• Select hereditary conditions increase the risk for rectal cancer. Conditions include familial adenomatous polyposis and nonpolyposis colon cancer.

Rectal cancer may spread to other parts of the body, including the lungs, liver, and ovaries. Rectal cancer may recur after it has been treated.

Biological therapies are being tested as a treatment for rectal cancer in clinical trials. Biological therapy works to stimulate the body’s immune system to fight cancer. Biological therapy is sometimes called immunotherapy. Rectal stents are also being used to treat the symptoms of cancer to give people a better quality of life. Non-surgical endoscopic methods called endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) are being tested for some types of rectal cancer.

Stomach cancer is not a common type of cancer in the United States. Stomach cancer occurs more frequently in areas outside of the United States, with the highest rates occurring in Japan, China, Southern and Eastern Europe, South America, Central America, and Iceland. It most frequently occurs in men over the age of 40 years old.

The exact cause of stomach cancer is unknown. Stomach cancer occurs when cells in the stomach grow abnormally and out of control. Researchers believe that stomach cancer forms slowly over several years. The primary treatment for stomach cancer is surgery.

Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach.

Your stomach is a sac-like pouch with a holding capacity of about a quart. The walls of your stomach are composed of three layers. The mucosa is the innermost layer in the stomach. The mucosa produces stomach acids and digestive fluids. The next layer, the submucosa, contains supportive tissue. The third layer, the muscularis, consists of muscles that move the stomach during the digestive process. The outer two layers of the stomach are the subserosa and the serosa.

Your stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. Your stomach processes the food you eat into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. The liquid solidifies as it moves through the large intestine forming a stool. The stool is eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

The exact cause of stomach cancer is unknown. Cancer occurs when cells grow abnormally and out of control, instead of dividing in an orderly manner. Stomach cancer usually originates in the mucosa, although it can start in any part of the stomach. Researchers believe that stomach cancer forms slowly over several years. There are several different types of stomach cancer, but adenocarcinoma is the most common. Adenocarcinoma is the focus of this article.

Stomach cancer can spread through the layers of the stomach. It can spread through the wall of the stomach and into nearby organs. Cancer that grows outside of the stomach and spreads to other parts of the body is referred to as metastasized cancer. Stomach cancer can metastasize to the lymph system if it grows into the lymph nodes. Advanced stomach cancer can travel in the bloodstream and metastasize to other organs, such as the liver, lungs, and bones.

Early stomach cancer usually does not produce symptoms. Symptoms of early stomach cancer include nausea, loss of appetite, and mild upper abdominal discomfort. It may be difficult for you to swallow food. You may feel full after eating only a small amount of food.

Symptoms of stomach cancer can also include vomiting, excessive belching, and possibly increased difficulty with swallowing. Blood may be present in your vomit or stools. Your abdomen may feel full and painful. Your breath may smell bad and you may have excessive gas (flatus). You may lose weight and feel tired. Some people develop anemia, a decrease in red blood cells.

Your doctor can start to diagnose stomach cancer after reviewing your medical history and conducting a physical examination. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms and risk factors. Your doctor may conduct tests to help confirm the diagnoses and rule out other diseases with similar symptoms. Common tests include blood tests, stool tests, a barium swallow, and an upper gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy.

A barium swallow, also called an upper GI series, provides a set of X-rays showing the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. Before the X-rays are taken, barium, a chalky substance, is swallowed. The barium provides an image of the upper gastrointestinal structures on the X-ray images. A barium swallow is commonly used to determine the cause of abdominal pain, swallowing problems, blood stained vomit, and/or unexplained weight loss. A barium swallow is an outpatient procedure that does not require sedation or anesthesia.

An upper GI endoscopy is a procedure that uses an endoscope to view the esophagus, stomach, and upper duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. This test is also called an esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) or a gastroscopy. An endoscope is a long thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to monitor. The endoscope allows a doctor to examine the inside of the upper gastrointestinal tract for bleeding ulcers, tumors, polyps, and other abnormal conditions. A tissue sample or biopsy can be taken with the endoscope. It is also used to treat bleeding. An upper GI endoscopy is an outpatient procedure. You will receive a medication to relax you prior to the test.

If your tests are positive for stomach cancer, your doctor may order tests to determine if the cancer has spread to other parts of your body. These may include blood tests and imaging tests. Blood tests can assess your liver function. A chest X-ray can determine if the cancer has spread to your lungs. A bone scan can determine if the cancer has spread to the bone. Computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, and positron emission tomography (PET) scans are imaging tests that may also be used. The CT scan is helpful for identifying cancer in the liver and other organs. The MRI scan is used to detect cancer in the brain and spinal cord. A PET scan can check the lymph nodes and other areas of the body for cancer.

If you have stomach cancer, your doctor will determine what stage of growth your cancer is in and if it has metastasized. Your doctor will assign a number to label your cancer stage. Staging is helpful for treatment planning and recovery prediction. There are different systems for staging stomach cancer, and you should make sure that you understand the system that your doctor is using. The stages of stomach cancer are most commonly labeled with the Roman numerals I through IV, with a higher number indicating a more serious cancer.

Treatment for stomach cancer depends on the stage of the cancer, the location of the cancer, your age, and overall health. Some treatments are aimed at curing cancer, while others focus on reducing symptoms if there is no cure. Surgery is the primary treatment and only possible cure for stomach cancer. Surgery removes the cancer cells, while leaving as much of the stomach in place as possible.

There are three main types of surgery for stomach cancer: endoscopic mucosal resection, subtotal partial gastrectomy, and total gastrectomy. Endoscopic mucosal resection is used for early stomach cancers. It removes the cancerous area of the stomach with an endoscope. An endoscope is a long thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to monitor. A subtotal partial gastrectomy is used to treat cancer that is located in the lower part of the stomach near the small intestine. This surgery removes a portion of the stomach and the first part of the small intestine. A total gastrectomy is used to treat cancer in the upper or middle stomach. This procedure removes the entire stomach. A substitute stomach is formed out of the small intestine by the surgeon. After a total gastrectomy, you will be limited to eating only small amounts of food at a time.

If your stomach cancer has spread to the lymph nodes, they may need to be surgically removed. Advanced cancers may need adjuvant therapy or additional treatments. Adjuvant therapies are used if there is a chance that cancer cells may exist outside of the surgical site or if there is a chance that the cancer might come back.

Adjuvant therapies for stomach cancer include radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Radiation therapy uses high-energy rays to destroy or limit cancer cells. Chemotherapy uses cancer-fighting drugs to destroy cancer cells. There are several different types of radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Treatments usually last for several weeks or months. Your doctor will let you know what to expect. The prognosis for stomach cancer is individualized and varies widely. The prognosis depends on the location of the cancer, its depth in the stomach wall, and involvement of the lymph nodes. The prognosis is less optimistic for stomach cancer that has metastasized.

The experience of cancer and cancer treatments can be an emotional process for people with cancer and their loved ones. It is important that you receive emotional support from a positive source. Some people find comfort in their family, friends, co-workers, and faith. Cancer support groups are another good option. They can be a good source of information and support from people who understand what you are experiencing. Ask your doctor about cancer support group locations in your area.

In most cases, stomach cancer is treatable if it is detected early. People living in countries where stomach cancer is common should be screened for stomach cancer. Researchers do not recommend screening for stomach cancer in countries where the incidence is lower. However, people that had portions of their stomach surgically removed 20 years ago or more should have yearly endoscopies to screen for stomach cancer.

If you have been diagnosed and treated for stomach cancer, you will have regular follow-up appointments to check for recurrence. There is a chance for anyone that has had cancer removed that it may come back. Attend all of your doctor appointments. It is important for recurrence to be detected early.

Researchers suggest that lifestyle changes may be beneficial. It appears helpful to avoid smoking tobacco and consuming alcohol. If you smoke or drink alcohol, make every attempt to stop. Talk to your doctor about ways that may make it easier for you to quit.

Perishable food should be refrigerated. You should avoid foods that are preserved by salting, pickling, and smoking. Researchers suggest that eating fruits and vegetables that are high in fiber and reducing high-fat foods may reduce the risk of stomach and colorectal cancer. The American Cancer Society recommends eating five servings per day of fruits, vegetables, and whole grain foods including breads, cereals, pasta, rice, and beans.

Researchers state that treating H. pylori infections with antibiotics appears to lower the risk of stomach cancer. This finding is not conclusive, and more research is underway. Aspirin and similar medications may lower the risk of stomach cancer and colon cancer in some people. However, not everyone can tolerate the side effects of aspirin. You should talk to your doctor before taking aspirin to see if it is right for you.

Adenocarcinoma is the most common type of stomach cancer worldwide. It most frequently occurs in men over the age of 40 years old. Stomach cancer occurs more frequently in areas outside of the United States, with the highest rates occurring in Japan, China, Southern and Eastern Europe, South America, Central America, and Iceland. The incidence of adenocarcinoma in the United States has declined.

Risk factors may increase your likelihood of developing stomach cancer. People with all of the risk factors may never develop the disease; however, the chance of developing stomach cancer increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Risk factors for stomach cancer:

• The risk of stomach cancer increases with age, especially over the age of 50 years old.
• Stomach cancer occurs more frequently in men than in women.
• People with Type A blood have a higher risk of developing stomach cancer than people with other blood types.
• Some genetic traits have been linked with the development of stomach cancer. Some families appear to have genetic changes that put them at a slightly higher risk for developing stomach cancer. If your close relatives have experienced stomach cancer, you have an increased likelihood of developing the disease.
• Some medical conditions can increase the risk for stomach cancer including an infection with the bacteria Helicobacter pylori or the Epstein-Barr virus, stomach polyps, Ménétrier's disease, and pernicious anemia.
• People that have had stomach surgery have an increased risk for stomach cancer.
• It appears that what you eat may influence your risk of developing stomach cancer. Diets that are high in smoked foods, salted fish, salted meats, and pickled vegetables are associated with an increased risk of cancer.
• Smoking tobacco, such as cigarettes, substantially increases the risk of stomach cancer.
• Researchers suggest that there is a link between alcohol consumption and stomach cancer, although the association has not been proven.
• Obesity or being overweight is associated with an increased risk for stomach cancer.

Stomach cancer can result in loss of appetite and weight loss. Stomach cancer can cause ascites. This condition causes fluid to build up in your abdomen. You may feel pressure on your abdomen and have shortness of breath. Inform your doctor if you experience loss of appetite, weight loss, or ascites. Your doctor may prescribe medications or make recommendations to help with these symptoms.

Metastases are a complication of advanced stomach cancer. This means that the cancer has grown through the stomach and spread to distant tissues and organs. Common sites for stomach cancer metastases include the liver, lungs, or bones. The cancer must be treated in the distant locations as well as in the stomach.

The side effects of radiation therapy and chemotherapy can be harsh for some people. The type of side effects you may experience can depend on the type of radiation therapy or chemotherapy that you receive. Tell your doctor about the side effects you experience. In some instances, steps can be taken to relieve or reduce the amount of side effects.

The side effects from chemotherapy may include temporary hair loss, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite, mouth sores, rashes, fatigue, low blood counts, hand swelling, and foot swelling. Most side effects subside after treatment. Your hair will grow back, although it may look different. Potential side effects of radiation therapy include mild skin irritation, nausea, diarrhea, rectal irritation, bladder irritation, loss of bowel control, fatigue, vaginal irritation in women, and impotence in men. Some of the side effects from radiation may be temporary, but others may persist or be permanent.

Researchers are continually working on methods to prevent and treat stomach cancer. Researchers are studying chemoprevention, methods of using diet and medications to lower the risk of getting cancer. They are studying the role of antioxidants in cancer prevention. Antioxidants include nutrients such as vitamin C, beta-carotene, and vitamin E. It appears that antioxidants may destroy free radicals, chemicals that cause genetic damage and cancer formation.

Researchers are studying sentinel lymph node mapping methods. Lymph node mapping can indicate how far the cancer has spread through the lymph node system and identify cancerous lymph nodes for removal. This technique is already used for breast cancer and melanoma treatment.

In the area of immunotherapy, researchers are studying ways to boost a person’s immune system to fight stomach cancer better. Medications are also being studied that can detect fast and slow growing cancer cells. Finally, researchers are looking for new ways to perfect the screening process for stomach cancer.

The stomach flu, also called viral gastroenteritis, is the leading cause of severe diarrhea. It can also cause vomiting and abdominal pain. The virus is found in contaminated food or drinking water. Symptoms of the stomach flu usually develop within 4 to 48 hours after exposure to the virus. The goal of treatment is to prevent dehydration while the virus runs its course.

Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach.

Your stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. Your stomach processes the food you eat into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. The liquid solidifies as it moves through the large intestine, forming a stool. The stool is eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

There are many viruses that cause the stomach flu. Rotavirus and Norwalk virus are the most common ones. The viruses are found in contaminated food or drinking water. The viruses are frequently spread by poor hand washing. They can spread among groups of people. Symptoms typically appear within 4 to 48 hours after exposure to the virus.

Symptoms of the stomach flu usually last from one to two days. The stomach flu can cause diarrhea and vomiting. You may experience nausea, abdominal pain, or cramping. This may cause you to have incontinence, a bowel movement when you do not intend to. You may get the chills or a fever. Your joints and muscles may feel sore and stiff. Your skin may feel clammy and you may sweat a lot. The stomach flu may cause you to lose weight. In rare cases, people may vomit blood.

The rotavirus can cause severe symptoms in infants, children, and the elderly. Severe symptoms can lead to severe dehydration and death. You should consult your doctor if your infant or child has symptoms of the stomach flu. You should contact your doctor if you are elderly and experiencing severe symptoms.

Call your doctor if your stomach flu lasts longer than a few days. You should call your doctor if you experience symptoms including faintness, dizziness, dry mouth, and blood in your stool. Other symptoms of concern are producing small amounts of urine and having a sunken appearance to your eyes. An infant may present sunken fontanels, the “soft spots” on the head.

Your doctor can diagnose the stomach flu by reviewing your medical history and performing an examination. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms. Your doctor may test your stool sample to determine if the symptoms you are experiencing are from a virus or bacteria.

The main goal of treatment is to promote hydration. Fluids, salts, and minerals need to be replaced. Your doctor can recommend fluid replacement drinks for infants and children. People with severe symptoms or dehydration may need to have fluids administered via an IV line. The stomach virus usually goes away on its own in a few days. Antibiotics do not work on viruses.

People with the highest risk for getting the stomach flu include infants, children, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems.

The rotavirus can cause severe symptoms in infants, children, and the elderly. Severe symptoms can lead to severe dehydration and death. You should consult your doctor if your infant or child has symptoms of the stomach flu. You should contact your doctor if you are elderly and experiencing severe symptoms.

Call your doctor if your stomach flu lasts longer than a few days. You should call your doctor if you experience symptoms including faintness, dizziness, dry mouth, and blood in your stool. Other symptoms of concern are producing small amounts of urine and having a sunken appearance to your eyes. An infant may present sunken fontanels, the “soft spots” on the head.

Swallowing is a complex process. Swallowing, termed deglutition, allows you to pass food and liquids from your mouth to your stomach for digestion. Swallowing difficulties, termed dysphagia, can occur for several reasons. Certain medical conditions, neurological conditions, or structural deformities can cause dysphagia.

Treatment for dysphagia varies from individual to individual. It depends on the cause and severity of the swallowing disorder. Treatments may include treating the underlying medical condition, rehabilitation, and changes in food preparation.

Swallowing involves three steps that move food and liquid from your mouth to your stomach. First, when you eat, you chew food with your teeth to break it down into pieces small enough to swallow. Your tongue moves the food around in your mouth while you chew. Saliva glands and mucous glands in your mouth secrete fluids to help moisten the food in preparation for swallowing. Food that is ready to be swallowed is called a bolus. When you drink liquids, your tongue forms a cup and moves the liquid to the back of your mouth.

Second, as your tongue moves a bolus to the back of your mouth, the swallowing reflex is triggered. The timing of the swallowing sequence is determined by your vagus nerve. When signaled, your tongue raises against the palate at the top of your mouth, and the bolus moves into the oropharynx, the first part of the pharynx. Your pharynx is a passageway that contains the respiratory and digestive tracts.

Finally, muscle contractions, called peristalsis, move the bolus from the oropharynx to the esophagus. During this process, your epiglottis covers the larynx (voice box) to prevent the bolus from entering the larynx or trachea (windpipe) when you swallow. This prevents food or liquid from entering your lungs. This is also why you cannot talk or breathe while you swallow.

Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach. Muscles in the esophagus wall squeeze the food toward your stomach. A ring of muscles is located at the bottom of the esophagus. It is called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). The LES relaxes to allow food to enter the stomach. The LES closes tightly after the food enters. This prevents stomach contents and acids from returning to the esophagus.

The stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. The stomach secretes mucus to protect the lining of the stomach from the acids. The esophagus does not secrete mucus and is not protected from stomach acids.

Swallowing difficulties, termed dysphagia, can occur for several reasons. They can result from problems with any part of the swallowing process. Common causes of dysphagia include problems related to the mouth or throat (pharynx) and the esophagus.

Problems related to the mouth or throat can be caused by obstructions, conditions that block the passage of food or liquids. Obstruction can result from medical conditions including tumors, cervical spine disease, Zenker’s diverticulum, and esophageal webs. Emotional or anxiety disorders can also cause pseudo-obstructions. Problems with the mouth can also include structural malformations, including those that people are born with. This includes cleft palate and deformities caused by mouth cancer or severe burns. It may also include very poor jaw or tooth alignment that affects chewing.

Nerve and muscle disorders associated with the mouth and throat can interfere with the swallowing reflex. Some neurological conditions can affect nerve signals, messages sent between the brain and the digestive system, and disrupt the swallowing process. Such medical conditions include traumatic brain injury, stroke, Parkinson’s Disease, Huntington’s Disease, Multiple Sclerosis, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS, also called Lou Gehrig’s Disease), Myasthenia Gravis, Muscular Dystrophy, Polymyositis, and infections, such as Polio or Syphilis.

Esophageal problems may be related to obstructions or nerve and muscle impairment. Tumors, foreign material, Schatzki’s Ring, or strictures can cause the esophagus to narrow. Strictures are obstructions from inflammation, scarring, or external pressure. Strictures can result from radiation, chemicals, medications or ulcers.

Nerve and muscle disorders of the esophagus can interfere with the movement of food from the throat to the stomach. Such neurological conditions include Achalasia, GERD, Hiatal Hernia, Diffuse Esophageal Spasm, Symptomatic Esophageal Peristalsis (Nutcracker Esophagus), and Scleroderma.

Swallowing difficulties can present several different types of symptoms depending on the source of the problem. Some people with neurological conditions may have difficulty aligning their jaws to bite, closing their lips, chewing, and moving their tongue to maneuver food to the back of their mouth. Food and liquid may dribble out of the mouth or remain in the mouth after attempting to swallow. Food and liquid may accumulate in the space between the teeth and gums or the teeth and the cheeks. Further, the epiglottis may fail to completely cover the trachea during swallowing and food or liquid may enter the trachea. This can cause coughing and choking. Aspiration occurs if the food or liquid is not removed with coughing or choking, but instead enters the lungs. Aspiration can lead to infection, including pneumonia.

Medical conditions associated with the esophagus can make it feel like food is stuck in your throat. You may regurgitate food, meaning have food return to your mouth after you swallow it. You may experience pain, pressure, burning or heaviness in your chest or neck.

Your doctor will review your medical history and conduct a medical examination to start to determine the cause of your swallowing difficulty. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms, medications, and medical conditions. Your doctor may conduct tests and imaging studies to help determine the cause and extent of your swallowing difficulty and to rule out conditions with similar symptoms. Common tests include an esophageal manometry and pH testing. Common imaging studies include a chest X-ray, barium swallow, and endoscopy. Your doctor may also order tests called swallowing studies that provide information about your swallow pattern.

An esophageal manometry measures the muscle function in the esophagus and the LES. A thin tube will be placed in your esophagus through your nose or mouth. During the test you will be asked to swallow your saliva and to swallow liquids. The tube has sensors that detect the pressure in various parts of the esophagus. As the esophagus muscles contract and squeeze the tube, the pressures are transmitted and recorded in a computer.

PH Monitoring determines how much stomach acid backs up into the esophagus and how long it stays there. It also measures the strength of your stomach acid. This test may take place over a period of time, such as 24 hours. Your doctor will place a very thin tube through your nose and into your esophagus. This device will measure your stomach acid levels as you go about your regular activities. A newer version of pH Monitoring uses a tiny capsule that is placed in the esophagus. The capsule measures pH levels and transmits the results by radio wave to a receiver that you wear on a belt. After about 48 hours the capsule passes harmlessly through your digestive tract.

Your doctor may take a chest X-ray to check for infection associated with aspiration. An X-ray is a painless procedure. It simply requires that you remain very still while the pictures are taken.

A barium swallow, also called an upper gastrointestinal (GI) series, provides a set of X-rays showing the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. Before the X-rays are taken, barium, a chalky substance, is swallowed. The barium provides an image of the upper GI structures on the X-ray images. A barium swallow is commonly used to determine the cause of pain, swallowing problems, blood stained vomit, and unexplained weight loss. A barium swallow is a procedure that does not require sedation or anesthesia.

An upper GI endoscopy is a procedure that uses an endoscope to view the esophagus, stomach, and upper duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. This test is also called an esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD). An endoscope is a long thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to monitor. The endoscope allows a doctor to examine the inside of the upper gastrointestinal tract for bleeding, tumors, polyps, and other abnormal conditions. A tissue sample or biopsy can be taken with the endoscope. It is also used to treat bleeding. You will receive a medication to relax you prior to the test.

There are several types of swallowing studies. A videofluoroscopy or modified barium swallow are most frequently used. Usually, a speech language pathologist or an occupational therapist administers the test. For the test, you will drink barium solution of various thicknesses while video X-rays are taken. The barium highlights the path of the bolus as the swallowing process takes place. A videofluoroscopy can show if the bolus is successfully swallowed or if aspiration occurs.

Treatment for swallowing difficulties is very individualized. Treatment depends on the cause, severity, and extent of your condition. Some underlying causes of swallowing problems can be diagnosed and treated with medications and sometimes surgery. Rehabilitation, such as oral motor exercises and swallowing techniques, can be helpful for people with neurological disorders. Additionally, changes in diet or food preparation can help. Changing the consistency or temperature of foods can make them easier to swallow. Further, occupational therapists can prescribe adaptive eating equipment to help with feeding and swallowing.

Prevention of swallowing difficulties depends on the cause of the problem. Your doctor will provide you with instructions specific to you. If you are being treated for a medical condition, you should make and keep all of your doctor appointments.

Risk factors may increase your likelihood of experiencing swallowing difficulties. People with all of the risk factors may never develop swallowing problems; however, the chance of developing the condition increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Risk factors for swallowing difficulties:

• Neurological conditions that affect the mouth or throat can cause swallowing difficulties. These conditions include traumatic brain injury, stroke, Parkinson’s Disease, Huntington’s Disease, Multiple Sclerosis, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS, also called Lou Gehrig’s Disease), Myasthenia Gravis, Muscular Dystrophy, Polymyositis, and infections, such as Polio or Syphilis.
• Medical conditions can cause obstruction. Such medical conditions include tumors, cervical spine disease, Zenker’s diverticulum, esophageal webs, and emotional or anxiety disorders.
• Esophageal obstructions can disrupt or block the flow of food and liquids to the stomach. This can result from narrowing of the esophagus. Conditions that can cause the esophagus to narrow include tumors, foreign material, Schatzki’s Ring, or strictures
• Smoking and Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) are risk factors for the development of esophageal cancer.
• Esophageal neurological or muscular conditions can affect the flow of food and liquids to the stomach. Examples of such conditions include Achalasia, GERD, Hiatal Hernia, Diffuse Esophageal Spasm, Symptomatic Esophageal Peristalsis (Nutcracker Esophagus), and Scleroderma.
• If you have a cleft palate, you may experience difficulty swallowing.

Complications from dysphagia include aspiration, dehydration, and malnutrition. Aspiration is concerning because it can lead to lung infections, including pneumonia. Dehydration and malnutrition may occur if a person is not able to consume enough food or liquids. In some cases, tube feedings may be necessary.

Poor swallowing can cause choking if food or liquid “goes down the wrong windpipe.” If food becomes lodged, the Heimlich maneuver may need to be performed. If efforts do not remove the food from the airway, someone should call the emergency medical services in your area, usually 911. The emergency medical personnel may need to establish an alternative airway to allow the person to breathe. Choking can be serious and life threatening. If untreated, it can cause blockage of the airway and even death.

Researchers are studying ways to improve detection of swallowing disorders. Researchers are also focusing on why some treatments for dysphagia work for some people and not for others.

Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. As water is absorbed from your digestive system, the waste products become more solid and form stools or feces. The stools are eventually eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach. Muscles in your esophagus wall slowly squeeze the food toward your stomach.

A ring of muscles is located at the bottom of the esophagus. It is called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). The LES opens to allow food to enter the stomach. The LES closes tightly after the food enters. This prevents stomach contents and acids from backing up into the esophagus. The esophagus does not secrete mucus and is not protected from stomach acids.

The stomach secretes mucus to protect the lining of the stomach from the acids. Your stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. Your stomach processes the food you eat into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine.

The small intestine is a tube that is about 20-22 feet long and 1 ½ to 2 inches around. The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. It is a short C-shaped structure that extends off of the stomach. The jejunum and the ileum are the middle and final sections of the small intestine.

Your gallbladder works with your liver and pancreas to send bile and digestive enzymes to the first part of your small intestine. Your small intestine uses these digestive products to break down the liquid from your stomach even further so your body can absorb the nutrients from the food that you ate. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel or colon, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The lower GI tract is divided into sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus. The appendix is located on the cecum, but it does not serve a purpose in the digestive process.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The large intestine moves the stool into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before being traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your digestive tract. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

Your liver is one of the largest organs in your body, second only to your skin. Your liver is located in your right upper abdomen and is protected by your ribcage. Your liver performs over 100 functions—most of them are related to keeping you alive and healthy.

Your liver is divided into right and left lobes. It is further divided into smaller lobes called the caudate and quadrate lobes. The right lobe is the largest part of your liver.

About 25% of your total blood volume passes through your liver each minute. Your liver receives blood from two sources, the portal vein and the hepatic artery. Additionally, blood from your spleen drains into the splenic vein and connects with the portal vein. Most of the blood received by your liver is from the portal vein. Blood travels from your heart and through your gastrointestinal tract before returning to your liver via the portal vein. This way, your liver is the first to receive substances from digested food.

Your liver receives toxins, alcohol, nutrients, germs, and medications from your digestive tract. As a result, one function of the liver is to metabolize toxins, alcohol, nutrients, and medications. The liver kills germs that enter your body through your intestines.

The hepatic artery is the second source of blood supply to the liver. Blood delivered through the hepatic artery comes directly from the heart. It is higher in oxygen than blood from the portal vein.

Once inside the liver, blood from the portal vein and the hepatic artery mix. The blood flows through tiny blood vessels in the liver called sinusoids. Components in the blood are delivered by the sinusoids to the hepatocytes. Hepatocytes are the major cell type in the liver. The hepatocytes metabolize nutrients, toxins, and drugs from the blood. Blood leaves the liver through the hepatic vein. The blood flows through the vena cava and back to the heart. The hepatocytes perform numerous chemical processing functions that are necessary to keep you healthy and alive. The hepatocytes play a role in blood clotting and secreting albumin. Albumin helps to regulate the amount of fluids in your body.

The hepatocytes metabolize nutrients including carbohydrates, fats, cholesterol, and proteins. Your liver functions to maintain appropriate ammonia and blood sugar (glucose) levels. Correct levels of ammonia are necessary for good brain functioning. Your cells use blood sugar for energy. Your liver also stores vitamins, iron, and other minerals.

Another function of the hepatocytes is to filter certain compounds from the blood. Blood arriving from the portal vein contains environmental toxins that were absorbed in the stomach. The liver “detoxifies” or filters the toxins from the blood. The toxins are secreted by your kidneys in urine or secreted into bile that leaves the liver.

Bile is a substance that is produced by your liver and stored in your gallbladder. When you eat fatty foods, bile leaves your gallbladder via the common bile duct and travels to the duodenum, the first part of your small intestine. There, the bile aids in breaking down fats for digestion.

Bile receives its yellow color from bilirubin. Bilirubin is formed from the break down old red blood cells. Your spleen breaks down your old red blood cells. The hepatocytes metabolize the hemoglobin in old red blood cells into a form of bilirubin that can be excreted with bile. This form of bilirubin is called “conjugated bilirubin.” It eventually is removed from your body in your urine or stools. Only a very small amount returns to your bloodstream.

The liver is unique in that it can regenerate itself. If part of the liver is removed, the liver can re-grow tissue. You need a liver to live. If the liver is severely damaged, it needs to be replaced.

A Peptic Ulcer is a sore in the lining of the stomach or the first part of the small intestine. An ulcer is caused by an imbalance between the acids and enzymes that break down food in the upper gastrointestinal tract. The imbalance of digestive fluids leads to inflammation, deterioration of the protective mucus lining, and ulcer formation. A Gastric Ulcer refers to an ulcer that is located in the stomach. A Duodenal Ulcer is located in the first section of the small intestine.

Some ulcers may not cause symptoms. Others may cause pain and bleeding. Ulcers are rarely life threatening. Treatments for ulcers include lifestyle changes, medications, and surgery.

When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach. Muscles in your esophagus wall slowly squeeze the food toward your stomach.

A ring of muscles located at the bottom of the esophagus is called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). The LES opens to allow food to enter the stomach. The LES closes tightly after the food enters. This prevents stomach contents and acids from backing up into the esophagus.

Your stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. Your stomach secretes mucus to protect its lining from the acids. Your stomach processes the food you eat into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine.

The small intestine is a tube that is about 20-22 feet long and 1 ½ to 2 inches around. The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. It is a short C-shaped structure that extends off of the stomach. The jejunum and the ileum are the middle and final sections of the small intestine. Your small intestine breaks down the liquid even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients from the food you ate. Your small intestine also has protection from irritating digestive acids. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The first part of the large intestine, the colon, absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As water is absorbed, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The stool moves through the large intestine and passes out of your body when you have a bowel movement.

Peptic Ulcer Disease is caused by an imbalance between acid and pepsin enzyme in the stomach and duodenum. The imbalance of digestive fluids causes inflammation, breakdown of the protective mucus lining, and leads to ulcer formation. A Gastric Ulcer is located in the stomach. A Duodenal Ulcer is located in the duodenum.

Most ulcers occur in the first layer of the stomach or intestinal lining. Some ulcers can penetrate through the intestine, creating a hole. This condition is called a Perforated Ulcer or Perforation of the Intestinal Lining.

Peptic Ulcer Disease occurs for several reasons. A bacterial infection from Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) can cause ulcers. They can be caused by the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDS) including aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and other prescription medications. Tumors produced by Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome can increase acid output and cause ulcers. People that breathe with a mechanical respirator have a risk for ulcers. Additionally, smoking, consuming alcohol, chronic gastritis, and increasing age contribute to ulcer formation.

Some ulcers may cause no symptoms at all. Symptoms can differ from person to person. You may experience a gnawing or burning pain in your stomach or upper abdomen. The pain may occur more frequently between meals or at night. The pain may even waken you at night. Your pain may get better or worse after eating a meal.

Ulcers can cause nausea, bloating, and heartburn. In severe cases, you may vomit blood or have blood in your stools from intestinal bleeding. Your stools may appear very dark or black if they contain blood. You may lose weight and feel tired all of the time.

Your doctor can diagnose peptic ulcer disease after reviewing your medical history and by conducting a physical examination. You should tell your doctor about your symptoms and risk factors. Your doctor may order blood tests, stool tests, and a test for H. pylori bacteria. Your doctor may also order tests, including a Barium Swallow or an Upper Gastrointestinal Intestinal (GI) Endoscopy, to help confirm the diagnosis.

An Upper Gastrointestinal (GI) Series or Barium Swallow provides a set of X-rays showing the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. Before the X-rays are taken, barium, a chalky substance, is swallowed. The barium provides a picture of the upper gastrointestinal structures on the X-ray images. A barium swallow is commonly used to determine the cause of pain, swallowing problems, blood stained vomit, and unexplained weight loss. A barium swallow is an outpatient procedure that does not require sedation or anesthesia.

An Upper Gastrointestinal Intestinal (GI) Endoscopy is a procedure that uses an endoscope to view the esophagus, stomach, and upper duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. This test is also called an esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) or a gastroscopy. An endoscope is a long thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to monitor. The endoscope allows a doctor to examine the inside of the upper gastrointestinal tract for ulcers, bleeding, tumors, polyps, diseases, and other abnormal conditions. A tissue sample or biopsy can be taken with the endoscope. This is frequently done to test for H. pylori bacteria. An endoscope is also used to treat bleeding. An upper GI endoscopy is an outpatient procedure. You will receive medication to relax you prior to the test.

Some ulcers may go away without formal treatment. Other ulcers can be corrected with lifestyle changes aimed at eliminating the cause of the ulcer. Such lifestyle changes include avoiding alcohol, cigarette smoking, caffeine products, aspirin, and NSAIDs. It can be helpful to eat several small meals throughout the day.

Your doctor may prescribe medication to treat your ulcer. Medication types include antibiotics, acid blockers, proton pump inhibitors, and tissue lining protectors. Most ulcers heal with medication in about eight weeks.

An Upper GI Endoscopy may be used to stop bleeding from ulcers. Perforated ulcers or severe bleeding may require surgery. A partial gastrectomy is a surgery that removes part of the stomach. A vagotomy is a surgery to cut the vagus nerve, the nerve that controls stomach acid production.

Ulcer recurrence is common. You can help prevent ulcers or recurrence by correcting the risk factors that you have control over. This includes avoiding aspirin, NSAIDs, smoking, and alcohol. If you experience the symptoms of an ulcer, call your doctor for prompt treatment.

Risk factors may increase your likelihood of developing ulcers. People with all of the risk factors may never develop the condition; however, the chance of developing an ulcer increases with the more risk factors you have. You should tell your doctor about your risk factors and discuss your concerns.

Risk factors for ulcers:

• The use of aspirin and NSAIDs can cause ulcers.
• H. pylori bacterial infections can cause ulcers.
• Chronic gastritis can contribute to ulcer formation.
• Smoking cigarettes and using tobacco increase the likelihood of developing an ulcer.
• Excessive consumption of alcohol increases the risk of ulcer.
• The risk of ulcer development increases with age, especially after 50 years old.
• People with Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome may have excess acid from gastrinomas (tumors).
• People that use a mechanical ventilator to breathe have an increased risk of ulcer formation.
• A family history of ulcers is associated with an increased risk of developing ulcers.
• People with Type O blood have an increased risk for ulcer formation.
• People with liver, kidney, or lung disease are at risk for developing ulcers.

Research indicates that stress from home or work does not cause or worsen ulcers.

Complications are more likely to occur in people that do not seek treatment or follow their treatment plan. Serious complications from ulcers include internal bleeding, perforation, and bowel obstruction. Ulcers can be but are rarely life threatening.

You should call Emergency Services in your area if you experience sharp abdominal pain, fainting, excessive sweating, or confusion. You should also call Emergency Services if you vomit blood or have blood in your stools or if your abdomen is hard and tender to touch. Call your doctor if you experience dizziness, lightheadedness, or ulcer symptoms.

An Upper Gastrointestinal Intestinal (GI) Endoscopy is a procedure that uses an endoscope to view the esophagus, stomach, and upper duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. This test is also called an esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) or a gastroscopy. An endoscope is a long thin tube with a light and a viewing instrument that sends images to monitor. The endoscope allows a doctor to examine the inside of the upper gastrointestinal tract for bleeding, tumors, polyps, diseases, and other abnormal conditions. A tissue sample or biopsy can be taken with the endoscope. It is also used to treat bleeding. An upper GI endoscopy is an outpatient procedure. You will receive a medication to relax you prior to the test.

When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach. Muscles in your esophagus wall slowly squeeze the food toward your stomach.

A ring of muscles located at the bottom of the esophagus is called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). The LES opens to allow food to enter the stomach. The LES closes tightly after the food enters. This prevents stomach contents and acids from backing up into the esophagus.

Your stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. Your stomach processes the food you eat into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine.

The small intestine is a tube that is about 20-22 feet long and 1 ½ to 2 inches around. The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. It is a short C-shaped structure that extends off of the stomach. The jejunum and the ileum are the middle and final sections of the small intestine.

Your small intestine breaks down the liquid even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients from the food you ate. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The first part of the large intestine, the colon, absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As water is absorbed, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The stool moves through the large intestine and passes out of your body when you have a bowel movement

An upper GI endoscopy may be ordered for several reasons. It may be used to identify digestive or inflammatory diseases and infections. It is helpful for determining the cause of bleeding, swallowing difficulties, and pain. It is used to detect abnormalities including tumors, narrowing of the esophagus, and obstructions. Additionally, an endoscope is used for taking photographs, obtaining tissue samples, surgically removing polyps, and to treat bleeding. An upper GI endoscopy can sometimes eliminate the need for an exploratory surgery.

An upper GI endoscopy is an outpatient procedure that can be performed at a doctor’s office or a hospital. Another person will need to drive you home because you will receive sedation medication for the procedure. You should not eat or drink for several hours before the test. You may need to stop taking aspirin or blood thinning medications a few days prior to your procedure. Your doctor will provide you with specific instructions.

You will wear an examination gown for your upper GI endoscopy. You will receive pain-relieving medication and a sedative through an IV line. The medication will relax you and make you feel drowsy. Your throat area will be numbed with a spray, gargle, or medication to relax your gag reflex.

You will lie on your left side for the procedure. You will wear a mouth guard to protect your teeth. Dentures should be removed. Your doctor will carefully place the endoscope in your throat and gently guide it through your upper gastrointestinal tract. Air or water will be inserted to provide a better view and to help advance the endoscope. You may need to change positions during the procedure to allow your doctor to best place the endoscope.

The procedure may cause temporary discomfort. It is common to experience gagging or belching. The numbing medication will temporarily impede your ability to swallow. You should not eat or drink for a few hours following your procedure. Your doctor will instruct you on how to increase your food and liquid intake. Your doctor will also discuss possible unexpected symptoms related to the test that may occur and a plan to address them.

Your doctor will review the results of your upper GI endoscopy with you at a follow-up appointment. It may take time to receive biopsy results. If any abnormal results were found by your test, your doctor will discuss treatment plan options with you.

An Upper Gastrointestinal (GI) Series or Barium Swallow provides a set of X-rays showing the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. Before the X-rays are taken, barium, a chalky substance, is swallowed. The barium provides an image of the upper gastrointestinal structures on the X-ray images. A barium swallow is commonly used to determine the cause of pain, swallowing problems, blood stained vomit, and unexplained weight loss. A barium swallow is an outpatient procedure that does not require sedation or anesthesia.

When you eat, your tongue moves chewed food to the back of your throat. When you swallow, the food moves into the opening of the esophagus. Your esophagus is a tube that moves food from your throat to your stomach. Muscles in your esophagus wall slowly squeeze the food toward your stomach.

A ring of muscles located at the bottom of the esophagus is called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). The LES opens to allow food to enter the stomach. The LES closes tightly after the food enters. This prevents stomach contents and acids from backing up into the esophagus. Your stomach produces acids to break down food for digestion. Your stomach processes the food you eat into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine.

The small intestine is a tube that is about 20-22 feet long and 1 ½ to 2 inches around. The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. It is a short C-shaped structure that extends off of the stomach. The jejunum and the ileum are the middle and final sections of the small intestine.

Your small intestine breaks down the liquid even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients from the food you ate. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The first part of the large intestine, the colon, absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As water is absorbed, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The stool moves through the large intestine and passes out of your body when you have a bowel movement.

A barium swallow is used to view the structures of the upper gastrointestinal system. The test is helpful for determining the cause of swallowing difficulties, pain, vomiting, and bleeding. It can detect and diagnose conditions including polyps, tumors, cancer, ulcers, abnormalities of the esophagus, and hiatal hernia.

A barium swallow is an outpatient procedure that can be performed at your doctor’s office, an outpatient radiology center, or a hospital’s radiology department. The test does not require sedation or anesthesia. You doctor will provide you with specific instructions to prepare for the test.

Generally, the instructions include eating a restricted diet for a few days before your test and not eating or smoking for a period of time before the test. You will need to remove all jewelry, dentures, metal hair clips, body piercing jewelry, and other items that might show up on an X-ray before your procedure.

You will wear an examination gown for your barium swallow procedure. X-rays of your heart, lungs, and abdomen are taken before you swallow the barium. You will drink 16 to 20 ounces of a barium solution. Barium is a chalky substance that is about as thick as a milkshake. It may take an hour or more for the barium to fill your stomach.

You will lie on your back and be secured to a table. The table will tilt to reposition your body for the X-rays. You may be asked to drink more barium as the process takes place. The test may take several hours to complete. An X-ray is a painless procedure and simply requires that you remain motionless while a picture is taken.

After your test, you should drink lots of fluids and eat foods that are high in fiber, such as raw vegetables and fruits, to prevent constipation. Your stools may be light in color for a few days because the barium is a white substance. Your doctor will discuss unexpected symptoms related to the test that may occur and a plan to address them.

A radiologist will read your X-rays and report the results to your doctor. This process may take a few days. Your doctor will contact you or schedule a follow-up appointment when the results are received. If any abnormal results were found on your test, your doctor will discuss treatment plan options with you.

A virtual colonoscopy is a procedure that uses medical imaging and computers to create a three-dimensional picture of the colon and rectum. The test is most frequently used to diagnose pre-cancerous polyps and colorectal cancer. It is a relatively quick outpatient procedure that does not require sedation or anesthesia.

Your body absorbs nutrients and removes waste products via your digestive system. Whenever you eat and drink, food travels through your digestive system for processing. As water from the waste product is absorbed, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool or feces. It is eventually eliminated from your body when you have a bowel movement.

After you swallow food, it moves through your esophagus and into your stomach. Chemicals in your stomach break down the food into a liquid form. The processed liquid travels from your stomach to your small intestine. Your small intestine breaks down the liquid even further so that your body can absorb the nutrients from the food you ate. The remaining waste products from the small intestine travel to the large intestine.

Your large intestine, also called the large bowel or colon, is a tube that is about 5 feet long and 3 or 4 inches around. The lower GI tract is divided into sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus. The appendix is located on the cecum, but it does not serve a purpose in the digestive process.

The first part of the colon absorbs water and nutrients from the waste products that come from the small intestine. As the colon absorbs water from the waste product, the product becomes more solid and forms a stool. The large intestine moves the stool into the sigmoid colon, where it may be stored before being traveling to the rectum. The rectum is the final 6-inch section of your digestive tract. No significant nutrient absorption occurs in the rectum or anal canal. From the rectum, the stool moves through the anal canal. It passes out of your body through your anus when you have a bowel movement.

A virtual colonoscopy may be ordered for several reasons. It is most frequently used to diagnose colorectal cancer and polyps. However, it is not recommended as a screening tool for colorectal cancer by American Cancer Society. A virtual colonoscopy can also be used to identify digestive or inflammatory diseases including diverticulosis and other tumors. It is helpful for determining the cause of bleeding. Additionally, a virtual colonoscopy may be used as a follow-up assessment after a colonoscopy.

A virtual colonoscopy is an outpatient procedure that is performed in the radiology department of a hospital or medical center. The procedure does not require sedation or anesthesia. Preparation instructions for a virtual colonoscopy generally consist of methods to empty or clean your bowel prior to the test including the use of laxatives, enemas, or a liquid diet. Your doctor will provide you with specific instructions. You will need to remove all jewelry, dentures, metal hair clips, body piercing jewelry, and other metal items that might show up on a scan before your procedure.

You will wear an examination gown for the procedure. To begin, you will lie on your left side on an examination table. A thin flexible tube will be gently placed through your anus and into your rectum. Air will be administered through the tube to inflate your colon. Making the colon bigger provides a better view and allows a more thorough examination. After the air is inserted, you will lie on your back.

The table will move through the opening of a scanning machine that will take images of your colon. The procedure may use magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT) scans. You will be asked to remain still and hold your breath at times while the images are taken. You may be asked to change positions to provide pictures from different angles. The images are sent to a computer that compiles them into a three-dimensional (3D) picture of your colon. When the procedure is completed, the thin tube is carefully withdrawn.

The procedure may cause temporary discomfort from the air that is pumped into the colon. You may feel temporary abdominal cramping or gas pain. MRI and CT scanning are painless procedures. They simply require that you remain motionless while the pictures are taken. You may return to work or your normal activities after the procedure. Your doctor will instruct you on how to increase your food and liquid intake.

A radiologist will evaluate the images from your virtual colonoscopy. If abnormal results were found by your test, your doctor will discuss next step planning with you. If a polyp is found on a virtual colonoscopy, it needs to be examined and possibly removed with a colonoscopy.